D.Litt. et Phil. / A plethora of research has been conducted on victims of township violence, detention and political unrest, but there is no research on car hijack victims or the prevalence of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), which could result from this crime. The implications of this lack of research are important because people are confronted by trauma on a daily basis but there are few guidelines for providing treatment. Hijackings are a somewhat recent phenomenon unlike other traumas such as wars and natural disasters, but the effects of hijacking are no less severe. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) always requires an initiating event which is assumed to be traumatic. The context in which car hijackings occur in South Africa can be considered to meet the criteria for what constitutes a traumatic event, which could possibly lead to the development of PTSD (Myerson, 1995). Not all crime victims who need professional assistance will enter therapy. This is often due to the victim's self-perception of weakness, feelings of embarrassment, or the perception that others will not understand their experience. A group-based intervention offers the advantages of reducing isolation, providing comfort and support, and eliminating feelings of stigma. For this reason it was important to analyse the nature of PTSD and how to intervene to aid the recovery from PTSD, in the South African context. The literature points to the recovery from PTSD as being contingent upon the psychotherapeutic input that the traumatised individual receives. This research focused on the development of a group-based cognitive behaviour intervention programme for victims who developed Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder as a result of car hijackings. Cognitive behavioural therapy is the only treatment modality that is supported by objective measures of success (Peterson, Prout & Schwartz, 1991) and has been found to be one of the most effective treatments (Kaplan & Sadock, 1993). In order to test the hypotheses, the Beck's Depression Inventory was used to measure the level of depression, the Spielburger's Stai Anxiety scale was used to measure the level of anxiety, and the CAPS and PCL were used to determine whether Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder existed in the individuals who participated in the study and the intensity and frequency of the symptoms.

M.A. (Psychology) / South Africa in 1997 is commonly seen as one of the most violent non-war countries in the world. Crime has become so much part of the daily routine of the average South African, that it is almost accepted as the norm. This study investigates the experiences of six persons, directly affected by a violent crime. The researcher endeavours to relate the constructions the victims hold around their experience of a car-jacking as truthful as possible and thus uses the paradigm of social constructionism ...

D.Ed. / World-wide, as well as in South Africa, divorce is on the increase. Divorce appears to be an intensely emotional experience, whilst the problems of families in the process of divorce are unique in each instance. The trauma resulting from divorce is intensified when disputes arise over the distribution of property, the payment of maintenance, and custody of and access to children. Three questions for research arise, namely: "How do the members of a family in the process of divorce interact in their daily lives? How will an educational psychologist's knowledge of this contribute towards a conceptual framework in order to diminish the trauma of divorce and to facilitate adjustment after divorce? and "In what way can the educational psychologist make a contribution in custody disputes that will be in the best interests of the children?" The purpose of this research is, therefore, to examine and describe the process of divorce, to utilise this information to develop an educational-psychological approach towards families in the process of divorce, and, thirdly, to formulate guidelines for handling custody disputes. This qualitative, explorative, descriptive and contextual research focusses on the lives of four groups of respondents in the divorce situation, namely divorced adults, children under the age of 8 years, adolescents whose parents have already divorced, and adolescents from homes where the marriage is in the process of breaking up. The research was carried out in three phases. Phase one comprised the exploration and description of the process of divorce, and this data was used in phase two to generate an approach for educational psychologists. In phase three guidelines were developed for an educational-psychological approach to families in the process of divorce. During phase one the collection of data was done by using explorative multiple case studies. The data was analysed using Giorgi's phenomenological approach and Kerlinger's guidelines for a content analysis. To further augment the data a review of the literature and comparison of the information with similar research has been done. Various themes were identified with regard to divorce as phenomenon and the way the different parties experienced and coped with divorce. During phase two these themes were highlighted as areas that should form part of an educational-psychological approach to families in divorce. During phase three guidelines were developed down for the handling of families-in-divorce. The focus had been especially on the role of the educational psychologist as therapist, mediator end evaluator before, during and after the divorce. Emphasis was specifically placed on the interests of the children, which should take precedence. Criteria for the determination of the best interests of children were also developed. This research aims at contributing to a better understanding of families-in-divorce and also provides a comprehensive approach with guidelines for an educational-psychological approach with regard to divorce referrals.

D.Cur. / South Africa, like many other countries, is charged with ensuring that her adolescents are mobilised to believe in the power of their own dignity in order for their life-world to change. Hundreds of thousands of adolescents were forced to experience political upheavals, violence, neglect, incarceration and family disorganisation. Many of these adolescents were forced onto the margins of society in their strive for understanding and survival. Many dropped out of school, are unskilled and therefore unemployed. They feel hopeless as they struggle for a place in society, because society has no faith in them - "they are lost to society". The purpose of this study was to generate a psychiatric nursing model to facilitate the reintegration of marginalised adolescents into the community. This study therefore has profound social, political and economic implications for the South African community. Through this model, which is a theoretical framework to be utilized by the advanced practitioner in psychiatric nursing, adolescents will be empowered to believe in themselves, to engage in meaningful relationships and activities with their families, peer groups and the broader community. The model provides a theoretical framework that attempts to rekindle and inspire the adolescents from a state of hopelessness and disillusionment, to integrated individuals who are respected, valued and accepted as integral members of their families, peer groups and communities. The model will assume a problem solving and preventative approach. Based on this discussion, the following questions were addressed in this research: What obstacles exist that hamper marginalised adolescents' reintegration into the community? What could be done to assist marginalised adolescents' reintegration into the community? A theory generative, qualitative, contextual, exploratory and descriptive design was followed. The research was conducted in four steps with a pilot-study that preceded step one of the research. In step one, focus group discussions were conducted with five groups of respondents to explore and describe obstacles that hamper the reintegration of marginalised adolescents into the community, as well as their views on how marginalised adolescents can be assisted to be reintegrated into the community. Data was analysed using Tesch's method. Based on the results of analyzed data, disempowerment, characterized by hopelessness, alienation/isolation, anger, frustration and worthlessness - related to poor socialisation, lack of support and services, family disorganisation, peer pressure and fragmented services - was identified as a main theme among stumbling blocks. Empowerment, characterized by improved self-image, feelings of worth, belief in own dignity - related to a sense of wellbeing, belonging and respect - resulting in personal growth and societal change with ultimate reintegration, was identified as major strategy to address marginalisation. In step two, the defined concepts were related to each other to show interrelationships. Classification of central and relational concepts followed to formulate relationship-statements, the result being to depict related concepts in structural form. In step three, a visual model to be utilized as a theoretical framework by the advanced psychiatric nurse practitioner to facilitate the marginalised adolescents as recipients and the advanced psychiatric nurse as agent, was designed to facilitate reintegration into the community. The model was evaluated by a panel of experts. Step four dealt with guidelines to operationalise the model in practice, education and research. Recommendations and limitations of the research were also discussed.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / The study of job performance has been a high priority for organizational researchers and practitioners alike. Models of performance have acknowledged that it is affected by both individual differences and environmental factors and also that behaviors outside the job description, called citizenship performance, have value. Despite these acknowledgements, researchers have placed much more emphasis on understanding the influence of individual differences (rather than environmental characteristics) on citizenship performance. Counter to the emphasis on individual differences, the current study sought to evaluate the relationships between environmental characteristics and citizenship performance in the context of the Job Characteristics Model (JCM) and to determine whether the relationships could be both theoretically and empirically understood. Additionally, the relative importance of the environmental variables in the JCM were evaluated and compared to well-known individual difference predictors of citizenship performance. Finally, the current study sought to provide initial evidence for different patterns of relationships between the JCM variables and the three facets of citizenship performance. Undergraduate students employed for at least 20 hours per week were recruited for participation (n = 379) in a cross-sectional study, and data were analyzed using structural equation modeling and regression. Generally, model tests revealed that the JCM as configured performed poorly, though the variables did predict citizenship performance. When job satisfaction was added as another mediator in the model, results were slightly better. Regarding incremental validity, JCM variables were able to explain variance above and beyond the individual difference variables, providing additional support for the importance of the environment in understanding behavior. One implication of this is that practitioners may be able to justify changes to the work environment in an effort to increase citizenship performance. Future research should continue to explore the environment’s effects on citizenship.

M.A. / This study is an attempt to investigate the way in which female survivors of childhood sexual abuse made sense of their experiences. Three participants were interviewed and the relevant themes that emerged from those interviews were coded and reported. The study was conducted from a qualitative perspective that was grounded in social construction methodology. The survivors' individual constructions of meaning at the time of their sexual abuse, their introduction to the social constructions of meaning about child sexual abuse and the double bind between these constructions are reported. The survivors' narratives are representations of the positive way they constructed meaning about their experiences as a way of coping. Their stories are also reflections of the confusion they experienced when introduced to the social constructions of child sexual abuse that differed from the meaning they attributed to their experiences. The study is a representation of the double bind that the difference between the individual and social constructions of their child sexual abuse created for them.

M.A. / The present study explores experiences of loss, disconnection, truth, hurting, healing, non-forgiveness and forgiveness associated with the South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission. Using a social constructionist perspective, the concepts of truth and forgiveness are explored through a theoretical background to psychology and subsequently in the stories and reflections of individuals who participated in the Commission. The issue of truth has been central to debates across the broader intellectual landscape, as well as to the theory and practice of psychology. In the following study, the historical shift from more modernist conceptions of truth to postmodern views is explored through a brief overview of the philosophy of science. These perspectives are explored further in the epistemological shifts underlying therapeutic endeavours and methodology in the field of psychology. Approaches to therapy in South Africa are subsequently reviewed, focusing particularly on positions of truth adopted by the profession in this context. The themes of truth, reconciliation, healing and hurting in the discourse surrounding the Commission are subsequently explored further. This discussion includes some of the literature regarding experiences of people who have been involved with the Commission. Following this, the narratives from interviews held with a group of mothers who attended the Truth Commission and one of the journalists working with the Commission are included. These narratives are related to participants' experiences in having attended/been involved with the Truth Commission and their experiences around truth and forgiveness. A qualitative, reflexive approach to the interviews and analysis thereof, is used. In conclusion, reflections on the process are included. These reflections present a dialectic between the importance of the ongoing nature of the journey in this multi-dimensional context, as well as the author's perspective on the need for the notion of absolute truth in this journeying.

D. Litt. et Phil. / This report presents the findings of a study conducted in February-March 1995, involving 109 members of different emergency services from three regions: Pretoria, Durban and Cape Town. The emergency services included in the study were three units of the South African Police Service (Visible Policing, the Internal Stability Unit and the Flying Squad), provincial fire and ambulance services, and municipal traffic services. The aims of the study were to: (1) describe the underlying causes of stress in the emergency services; (2) establish how stress is currently being dealt with by members and identify the structures and support systems available to assist members with stress-related problems; (3) identify constructive and destructive, effective and ineffective mechanisms used by members to cope with their stress, and (4) suggest solutions to problems experienced in managing stress in the emergency services. The study investigated stressors of SAPS members under the following themes: (1) public image of the SAPS, (2) management style in the SAPS, (3) communication in the SAPS, (4) working environment in the SAPS, (5) working conditions and remuneration packages, (6) distinct characteristics of the work of SAPS members, and (7) the priorities set by SAPS members that need to be addressed in order to reduce their level of stress. The stressors of members of the fire and ambulance services were dealt with under the following themes: (1) utilisation of manpower in the organisation, (2) training provided to members, (3) management style in the fire and ambulance services, (4) distinct characteristics of the work of members of the fire and ambulance services, (5) remuneration packages, and (6) the priorities set by members that need to be addressed in order to reduce their level of stress. The stressors of members of the traffic services were dealt with under the following themes: (1) the public image of the traffic services, (2) distinct characteristics of the work of traffic officials, (3) communication in the traffic services, (4) working conditions and remuneration packages and (5) the priorities set by members that need to be addressed in order to reduce their level of stress. Regarding the support members of the emergency services receive within their organisations for managing stress, a number of sources of support were mentioned, such as social workers, psychologists and chaplains in the SAPS, support by supervisors, debriefing after traumatic events, stress management training, nursing sisters at ambulance stations, drinking and socialising, with the biggest form of support being "buddies". Regarding the co-operation between members of the different emergency services, the perception was that there was a very good relationship and good co-operation. Number of problems experienced in their day-to-day contact with each other were however mentioned.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / The presence of a chronic pain condition can have a profound impact on one’s self-concept. Some individuals may have had to make major lifestyle changes. As a result, some people may start to define themselves in terms of their pain, such that their self-schema and pain-schemas become intertwined in a process termed schema-enmeshment. It is thought that schema-enmeshment is related to psychological distress making it a prime target for intervention. Little research has been conducted on interventions to reduce schema-enmeshment. Acceptance-based interventions may be especially appropriate in reducing schema-enmeshment or the connection between self and illness symptoms as these interventions tend to emphasize learning to live with pain and other symptoms and to work toward important life goals rather than continually fighting against the condition and allowing it to control their life. This study is a randomized trial comparing Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) to education about pain management in a sample of women with Fibromyalgia Syndrome (FMS). The primary aim of this study was to assess the efficacy of ACT in reducing schema-enmeshment between self and pain, as well as enmeshment between self and other symptoms and FMS as a whole. In addition, this study also explored the role of pain acceptance, specifically activity engagement as a mediator of the relationship between treatment group membership and changes in schema-enmeshment. The data was analyzed as an intent-to-treat analysis using the “last measure carried forward” method. Results indicated that the ACT group reported statistically significant differences in self schema-enmeshment with FMS, fatigue, and cognitive symptoms, but not with pain, following the intervention, compared to the educational control group. In each of these cases, the ACT group experienced greater reductions in schema-enmeshment compared to the education group. Interestingly, no statistically significant differences were observed for schema-enmeshment with pain. Statistically significant group differences were also observed for acceptance of pain following the intervention. Finally, a mediational model in which changes in activity engagement (a form of pain acceptance) served as the mediator of the relationship between treatment group and changes in schema-enmeshment with FMS was tested. The model was tested using a bootstrapping method, and results revealed a trend toward a significant indirect effect of changes in activity engagement leading to changes in schema-enmeshment with FMS. Taken together, the results of this study indicate that ACT may be a promising intervention for targeting maladaptive beliefs about the self in relation to illness, especially schema-enmeshment of self with illness and illness symptoms. Additionally, there is evidence that ACT may target key constructs such as activity engagement, which may be related to other cognitive and behavioral changes. Future directions for research and clinical practice related to ACT as an intervention for FMS are discussed in depth.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / The substantial interpersonal and economic costs of depression make it imperative to better understand the predictors and moderators of depressive symptoms. The ability to use social support protects people from depressive symptoms, but individuals high in attachment avoidance tend not to use others as sources of support. Research has found that attachment avoidance is related to depressive symptoms in some samples but not in others (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007; Shea, 2011). Thus, there appear to be factors that moderate the relationship between attachment avoidance and depressive symptoms. The present study examined if cognitive abilities that facilitate effective emotion regulation strategies moderate the relationship between attachment avoidance and depressive symptoms. Using a sample of college students, attachment avoidance, cognitive abilities, depressive symptoms, and other indices of psychological distress and well-being were measured and examined for evidence of moderation via hierarchical linear regression. The hypothesis that cognitive abilities moderate the relationship between attachment avoidance and depressive symptoms was not supported (ΔR2 = 0.02, p = .68). Factors contributing to the null findings are discussed and conceptual and methodological suggestions are offered for future research.