The aim of this thesis was to explore the effects of state anxiety, trait anxiety, and defensiveness on a psychomotor task that required working memory resources. Results from study 1 confirmed that a random response generation task was sensitive to changes in response rate and used limited working memory resources. ARM MANOV A showed that participant behaviour became less random as response rate increased (A. =.239, F9,1 = 14.491)

Aim: To undertake exploratory work examining the relationship between menopausal symptoms, body image, exercise and wellbeing. Method: A mixed methods approach was used, including a systematic scoping review, the development of a synchronous text-based online interviewing tool; a qualitative Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis study, and mixed methods study. Results: The review showed that women’s experiences of the menopause and body image can be both positive and negative simultaneously, which has implications for the way these concepts are quantitatively measured. A synchronous online interviewing tool is an additional method to be added to the researchers’ tool kit, especially if the topic is sensitive and an extra level of anonymity is needed. The IPA study focused on experiences of body image concerns and identified a range of ways menopausal women cope with such changes. Through Structural Equation Modelling and interviews, we identified that menopausal symptoms may act as a barrier to exercise participation by decreasing a woman’s subjective vitality, and reducing perceptions of attractiveness, life satisfaction and self-esteem. Conclusion: Health psychology of the menopausal transition is in its infancy. It is not only important to consider methods to reduce symptoms, but also the impact symptoms have on health behaviour, body image and wellbeing.

Observations of human behaviour show a tendency for avoiding energy expenditure through stair climbing where possible. Similarities between demographic influences in stair avoidance and explicit perceptions of geographical slant outlined in the ‘economy of action’ account (Proffitt, 2006) suggest that this avoidance behaviour might be due to a perceptual bias. Chapter two of this thesis investigated measures of slant perception linked to action. It appears that these ‘haptic’ measures tap into a perceptual process that is more in touch with the physical reality of the environment than conscious awareness. Chapter four demonstrated that fundamentals of the economy of action account generalise to the perception of staircases, and to a newly developed laboratory setting. Depletion of energetic resources, manipulated through fatigue, resulted in steeper explicit estimates of staircase steepness. In reaction to published criticisms of the methodology used in this field, chapter five took a new approach to testing the effect of resources on perception. Two quasi-experimental field studies, designed to circumvent methodological issues challenging the validity of previous studies, demonstrated that available energy resources affects consciously perceived steepness in the built environment. Chapters six and seven built on this by testing the economy of action account as a model that explains stair avoidance behaviour. Encouragingly, across two different points-of-choice between stair climbing and avoidance, explicit measures of perceived geographical slant were linked to reported prior stair climbing behaviour at one site (chapter six) and objectively measured behaviour at another (chapter seven). Collectively, these findings suggest that available energetic resources dictate the exaggeration of perceived geographical slant experienced at an individual level, and that this in turn influences stair choice behaviour, biasing those with less resources towards stair avoidance and energy preservation.

With the prevalence of obesity reaching epidemic levels both within the UK and worldwide there is an urgent need to explore ways in which to stem its burden on our society. There is a large body of research examining the positive effects of dietary and physical activity interventions for weight loss success, however much less is known regarding the psychological aspects, in particular the self-regulatory factors that contribute to both weight loss and weight maintenance success and failure. The current thesis examines these factors through four studies. Study one highlighted the factors related to success and failure in weight maintenance. Study two investigated the characteristics contributing to successful attainment of a weight loss and a non weight loss goal simultaneously. Study three explored the factors related to dietary lapse occurrence. Building on the previous studies, study four consisted of a self-regulatory skills intervention to improve weight-related outcomes. Results highlight the role of temptations and lapse occurrence and the threat they pose to weight loss and weight maintenance success. In addition, the current thesis outlines the need to not only identify influential self-regulatory factors but also to develop these factors in order to promote weight loss success.

Low levels of cardio-respiratory fitness represent a major health risk. Few studies have investigated the possible contribution of psychological influences to cardio-respiratory fitness, with none longitudinally. The purpose of the present thesis was to explore the cognitive and behavioural correlates of adults’ cardio-respiratory fitness using theoretical constructs forwarded in Self-Determination Theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 2000) and the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB; Azjen, 1991). Studies 1 and 3 tested potential contributions of the Self Determination Theory cognitions of autonomous (intrinsic and identified) and controlled (introjected and external) motivations, including amotivation, to cardio-respiratory fitness over 9 weeks and 3 years. Studies 2 and 4 tested potential contributions from the Theory of Planned Behaviour constructs of intention, attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioural control to cardio-respiratory fitness over the same time period. Analysis from structural equation modelling revealed only intrinsic motivation and affective attitude, constructs from the SDT and TPB respectively, contributed to changes in fitness. Collectively, the four studies suggest that intrinsic motivation and affective attitude are of major importance to cardio-respiratory fitness, even when individuals may have prominent controlled reasons for participating in exercise. The findings provide a foundation for theoretically aligned future research investigating the psychosocial antecedents of exercise with a view to developing more effective theory driven lifestyle interventions directed at enhancing this important health outcome.

Little is known about neutrophil function, an important component of innate immunity, in relation to psychosocial factors. This thesis investigated the effect of acute and chronic psychological stressors on human neutrophil function among young and older adults. The first two studies examined the effects of an acute laboratory psychological stress task on neutrophil function in young and older adults, respectively. Blood samples to determine neutrophil function were taken at resting baseline, during acute stress and during recovery. In the first study (N=40), there was an acute increase in phagocytic ability and a reduction of superoxide production associated with the stress task relative to baseline. In study two (N =17), there was a significant reduction of neutrophil superoxide production associated with the stress task. Study three (N=48) examined the effect of chronic stress, a recent bereavement (<2 months), on neutrophil function in elders. Cortisol and dehydroepiandrosterone-sulphate (DHEAS) levels were determined in serum to assess potential mechanisms. Superoxide production was significantly reduced among the bereaved group when challenged with E. Coli; also, the bereaved had a significantly higher cortisol:DHEAS ratio compared to controls. Overall, this thesis shows that human neutrophil function is sensitive to both acute and chronic psychological stress exposures; however, more research is needed to determine the specific underlying mechanisms behind the observed alterations.

Recent research has highlighted the potential importance of collective efficacy in enhancing understanding of group productivity within both mainstream and sport psychology, The aim of this thesis was, within a sport and physical activity setting, to progress beyond examining the collective efficacy - performance relationship and to focus upon examining the mechanisms through which Bandura (1982,1986,1997) predicts collective efficacy influences performance. Consistent with Bandura's proposals it was predicted that collective efficacy beliefs would influence group activity choice, goal selection, effort allocation, persistence levels, affective (including competitive state anxiety) reactions and team-referent attributions. A further research aim was to examine potential sources of collective efficacy. Thus, the role of team performance experiences and the attributions to these experiences as determinants of collective efficacy beliefs were examined. To achieve these aims five studies, three experimental studies and two field based surveys, were conducted. The experimental studies provided support for the prediction that an individual's collective efficacy beliefs are important determinants of that individual's stated choice of activity for their group, the goals they advocate that their group adopts, and the effort they allocate to the group task. Partial support for Weldon and Weingart's (1993) proposed relationship between collective efficacy and group goal commitment was also observed. However, no support was found for the predicted differences in persistence between individuals high and low in collective efficacy. The second and third of these studies indicated that performance information was an important source of collective efficacy. The field based surveys also provided support for aspects of Bandura's model of collective efficacy. The first of these indicated the existence of a small, negative relationship between an individual's collective efficacy beliefs and the level of cognitive anxiety experienced prior to competition and a moderate, positive relationship between an individual's collective efficacy beliefs and the level of positive affect experienced prior to competition. The second of the survey studies indicated that individuals with high collective efficacy used more controllable attributions than did those with low collective efficacy. Furthermore individuals' collective efficacy beliefs were observed to influence the team-referent attributions made after perceived success and failure of the team's performance. Specifically following perceived poor performances, high collective efficacy individuals used more external and unstable attributions than did those low in collective efficacy, whilst following good performances high collective efficacy individuals used more internal and stable attributions. This study also provided support for the role of controllable team-referent attributions in mediating the influence of performance attainments on collective efficacy beliefs with the use of controllable attributions leading to increases in collective efficacy following success and failure. Overall the research conducted provides support for a number of the mechanisms through which it is proposed that collective efficacy operates on performance, and for the role of performance attainments and team-referent attributions in determining collective efficacy. It also provides further evidence for the importance of collective efficacy to the understanding of group productivity and individuals who constitute groups.

The primary aim of the present thesis was to gain an insight into the usefulness and potential impacts of producing individual athlete performance profiles within a group environment (Butler & Hardy, 1992). Given the limited, and mainly descriptive, profiling literature, a strong two-stage research design, adhering to many of Denzin's (1978) triangulation principles, examined the perceptions of the two primary user populations (sport psychologist and athlete). Firstly British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences (BASES) accredited sport psychologists (n=6) were interviewed to provide an in depth understanding of the usefulness and impact of the technique. Higher order themes, obtained via an inductive content analysis of the interviews, were combined with a review of the literature to produce a quantitative questionnaire examining the perceptions of a large number of BASES accredited consultants (n=56). An investigation of athlete perceptions regarding the impact of the technique firstly involved employing the group performance profiling procedure (Butler & Hardy, 1992) on a male collegiate rugby union squad. Following the profiling session players (n=8) were randomly chosen and interviewed regarding their perceptions of the usefulness and impact of the technique. An inductive content analysis of the interviews produced a number of higher order themes that were combined with a review of the profiling literature to produce a quantitative questionnaire. Following the successful piloting of the questionnaire ten group performance profiling sessions were performed with a variety of sports teams. On completion of the profiling sessions athletes (n=191) were asked to complete the questionnaire to help ascertain what athletes perceived to be the most important impacts of performance profiling within a group environment. Inspection of both the consultant and athlete responses to the qualitative and quantitative procedures indicated that group profiling is useful in increasing athlete self awareness, evaluating performance, as a basis for goal setting, and enhancing communication and interaction both within teams and between athlete and coach. In addition, both consultants and athletes believed that performance profiling within a group environment would help to improve athlete intrinsic motivation. Hence the final study examined experimentally the impact of repeated group performance profiling on athletes' intrinsic motivation. Results showed that profiling on three occasions within a competitive season is useful in significantly improving athlete intrinsic motivation. The findings provide empirical support for Butler and Hardy's (1992) suggestion that performance profiling would positively influence athlete intrinsic motivation.

Theoretical models of person perception (e.g., the Schematic Model of Person Perception, Warr & Knapper, 1968) have conceptualised the range of stimuli a perceiver will use to form an impression of a target and their subsequent responses to these stimuli. The main aim of this thesis was to examine person perception in sports interactions. Specifically, the aims were to examine a) the stimuli sports performers attend to b) the attributive, expectancy and affective responses sports performers develop to initial impressions c) the influence of initial impressions on attributions for an opponent's performance and d) the influence of initial impressions on a performer's attention and competitive sports performance. Study one of this thesis presents qualitative research highlighting the range of stimuli available to tennis performers, common attributive responses and reported impacts of an impression on a performer's state, expectations and performance. Study two provides empirical support for the suggestion that performers experience attributive and expectancy responses to their opponents' body language. Specifically, when a potential opponent displayed positive body language, participants rated both episodic and dispositional judgements significantly more positively than when negative body language was displayed. When the potential opponent's body language was positive participants' expectations of the opponent's performance, their own performance and the demands of a match were rated as significantly greater than when negative body language was displayed. When the potential opponent's body language was positive participants' expectations for the overall outcome of a match were rated significantly lower than when negative body language was displayed. Study three shows that, despite performance specific stimuli becoming available later in the interaction, an initial impression influences how an opponent's performance is judged. Specifically, when a potential opponent displayed positive body language his technique, power and movement were rated significantly higher than when negative body language was displayed. Study three also highlights how person perception can influence how a performer's attributes his or her opponent's performance. Study three showed that when a potential opponent displayed positive body language a successful performance was attributed to greater levels of skill and when negative body language was displayed a successful performance was attributed to luck. Study four demonstrates that an opponent's prior performance record can prompt a significant affective response, with participants given stimuli showing their opponent had won all previous competitions reporting significantly greater levels of cognitive anxiety. Participants given stimuli showing their opponent had won all previous competitions of a golf putting game also showed a significant decrease in competition scores from a baseline measure, indicating that an initial impression of an opponent influenced the perceiver's performance of a fine motor skill. The opponent's prior performance was seen to influence the amount of time a performer spends attending to their opponent's stimuli, with participants given no prior performance information attending to their opponent's subsequent neutral stimuli for significantly longer durations than participants provided with prior performance stimuli. Overall the research presented in this thesis provides support for the use of the Schematic Model of Person Perception (Warr & Knapper, 1968) as a theoretical basis of investigation in sports-specific person perception research. Initial support is given to the proposal that person perception can be a significant factor in a performer's judgements of an opponent, expectations, affective state and attentional style prior to performing.

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