Entre os produtos confeccionados com polímeros reforçados com fibras, as hastes pultrudadas têm sido utilizadas em um número crescente de aplicações devido a características como baixa massa, elevada resistência mecânica, baixo custo de manutenção e alta resistência à corrosão, em particular quando comparadas com hastes confeccionadas em materiais convencionais equivalentes. Porém, os mecanismos de envelhecimento e de degradação dos compósitos poliméricos reforçados com fibras precisam ser mais bem compreendidos, particularmente os mecanismos de dano em condições de serviço, em aplicações de engenharia civil ou em águas profundas. Neste trabalho, foi avaliada a exposição de hastes pultrudadas produzidas a partir de fibras de carbono e vidro e resinas epóxi e éster-vinílica após 3000 horas em diferentes ambientes, como exposição à radiação UV, exposição à água do mar e exposição à água a 60 °C. Os principais aspectos microestruturais, físicos, térmicos, químicos, mecânicos e de vida útil das hastes foram avaliados antes e após as exposições. As hastes com fibras de carbono apresentaram maior resistência residual de forma geral quando comparadas às hastes de fibra de vidro, as quais perderam mais de 50% da sua resistência original após exposições de curta duração (744 h). Quando expostas à radiação UV, as hastes com fibras de carbono apresentaram maior resistência residual à tração, assim como quando submetidas a esforços combinados nos ensaios de SBS. O ambiente mais agressivo entre os estudados definitivamente foi a imersão em água destilada. Os resultados dos ensaios de short-beam apresentaram melhor relação com os efeitos de degradação do que os ensaios de resistência à tração. Através das análises microestruturais (MO e MEV) foi possível identificar alguns tipos de mecanismos de degradação atuantes em cada condição de envelhecimento acelerado. Após analisar uma combinação de fatores envolvidos, a resina epóxi, dentre as resinas estudas, foi a que apresentou melhores propriedades de interface quando utilizada com fibras de carbono. / Among products made with fiber-reinforced polymers, pultruded rods have been used in an increasing number of applications, due to such features as low weight, high strength, low maintenance costs, and high corrosion resistance, particularly when compared with rods manufactured with equivalent conventional materials. However, the ageing and degradation mechanisms of these polymer composite materials still need to be better understood, particularly the damage mechanisms under various service conditions, such as civil engineering or in deep water applications. This thesis presents an experimental study that evaluates the ageing of pultruded rods produced from reinforced carbon and glass fibers and epoxy and vinyl ester resin matrices when exposed to UV radiation, seawater and distilled water at 60 °C for 3000 hours. The degradation assessment in the different environments was made by analyzing and comparing the microstructural, physical, chemical, thermal and mechanical aspects and the lifespan of the pultruded composite rods before and after accelerated ageing. The carbon fiber rods presented a higher residual resistance considering all the aforementioned aspects when compared to the glass fibers rods, which lost more than 50% of their original resistance after short exposure (744 h) to weathering. When exposed to UV radiation, the carbon fiber rods showed higher residual resistance as compared with other types of degrading conditions. Distilled water was undoubtedly the most aggressive ageing factor in respect to all the evaluated properties and characteristics of the tested rods. The short-beam test results showed higher correlation with the degradation effects than the results of the tensile test. By means of microstructural analysis (SEM and OM), it was possible to identify some types of degradation mechanisms for each kind of applied accelerated ageing. After analyzing a combination of factors involved, it was possible to reach the conclusion that the epoxy resin incorporated with carbon fibers displayed the best overall performance among all possible resin/fiber couples

This thesis presents the results of an experimental investigation into the behavior of a pultruded E-glass/polyester fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) composite under sustained loads at elevated temperatures in the range of those that might be seen in service. This investigation involved compression creep tests of material coupons performed at a constant stress level of 33% of ultimate strength and three temperatures levels; 23.3°C (74°F), 37.7°F (100°F), and 54.4°C (130°F). The results of these experiments were used in conjunction with the Findley power law and the Time- Temperature Superposition Principle (TTSP) to formulate a predictive curve for the longterm creep behavior of these pultruded sections. Further experiments were performed to investigate the effects of thermal cycles in order to better simulate service conditions.

This thesis addresses the results of an experimental and analytical investigation aimed at examining the static load-displacement response of braced plane frame structures composed of fiber reinforced polymeric (FRP) composite material structural members manufactured by the pultrusion process. In the experimental part of this investigation, eighteen full-scale lateral loading tests for FRP composite frames with different brace configurations and beam column connection types were performed. The load-displacement responses of such frames were measured and are reported herein. In the analytical part of this investigation, a frame analysis method that accounts for the anisotropic nature of FRP composite material structural members was investigated. The results from the experimental work are compared with the results from the analytical procedures. The effects of various structural parameters of the frame such as (1) effective mechanical material properties of members, (2) beam-column connection types, and (3) the influence of diagonal structural members on the lateral load-displacement response of the braced plane frames are also investigated. The numerical load-displacement results from the proposed FRP composite frames analysis procedure provided good agreement with the results from the full-scale laboratory tests.

Entre os produtos confeccionados com polímeros reforçados com fibras, as hastes pultrudadas têm sido utilizadas em um número crescente de aplicações devido a características como baixa massa, elevada resistência mecânica, baixo custo de manutenção e alta resistência à corrosão, em particular quando comparadas com hastes confeccionadas em materiais convencionais equivalentes. Porém, os mecanismos de envelhecimento e de degradação dos compósitos poliméricos reforçados com fibras precisam ser mais bem compreendidos, particularmente os mecanismos de dano em condições de serviço, em aplicações de engenharia civil ou em águas profundas. Neste trabalho, foi avaliada a exposição de hastes pultrudadas produzidas a partir de fibras de carbono e vidro e resinas epóxi e éster-vinílica após 3000 horas em diferentes ambientes, como exposição à radiação UV, exposição à água do mar e exposição à água a 60 °C. Os principais aspectos microestruturais, físicos, térmicos, químicos, mecânicos e de vida útil das hastes foram avaliados antes e após as exposições. As hastes com fibras de carbono apresentaram maior resistência residual de forma geral quando comparadas às hastes de fibra de vidro, as quais perderam mais de 50% da sua resistência original após exposições de curta duração (744 h). Quando expostas à radiação UV, as hastes com fibras de carbono apresentaram maior resistência residual à tração, assim como quando submetidas a esforços combinados nos ensaios de SBS. O ambiente mais agressivo entre os estudados definitivamente foi a imersão em água destilada. Os resultados dos ensaios de short-beam apresentaram melhor relação com os efeitos de degradação do que os ensaios de resistência à tração. Através das análises microestruturais (MO e MEV) foi possível identificar alguns tipos de mecanismos de degradação atuantes em cada condição de envelhecimento acelerado. Após analisar uma combinação de fatores envolvidos, a resina epóxi, dentre as resinas estudas, foi a que apresentou melhores propriedades de interface quando utilizada com fibras de carbono. / Among products made with fiber-reinforced polymers, pultruded rods have been used in an increasing number of applications, due to such features as low weight, high strength, low maintenance costs, and high corrosion resistance, particularly when compared with rods manufactured with equivalent conventional materials. However, the ageing and degradation mechanisms of these polymer composite materials still need to be better understood, particularly the damage mechanisms under various service conditions, such as civil engineering or in deep water applications. This thesis presents an experimental study that evaluates the ageing of pultruded rods produced from reinforced carbon and glass fibers and epoxy and vinyl ester resin matrices when exposed to UV radiation, seawater and distilled water at 60 °C for 3000 hours. The degradation assessment in the different environments was made by analyzing and comparing the microstructural, physical, chemical, thermal and mechanical aspects and the lifespan of the pultruded composite rods before and after accelerated ageing. The carbon fiber rods presented a higher residual resistance considering all the aforementioned aspects when compared to the glass fibers rods, which lost more than 50% of their original resistance after short exposure (744 h) to weathering. When exposed to UV radiation, the carbon fiber rods showed higher residual resistance as compared with other types of degrading conditions. Distilled water was undoubtedly the most aggressive ageing factor in respect to all the evaluated properties and characteristics of the tested rods. The short-beam test results showed higher correlation with the degradation effects than the results of the tensile test. By means of microstructural analysis (SEM and OM), it was possible to identify some types of degradation mechanisms for each kind of applied accelerated ageing. After analyzing a combination of factors involved, it was possible to reach the conclusion that the epoxy resin incorporated with carbon fibers displayed the best overall performance among all possible resin/fiber couples

Entre os produtos confeccionados com polímeros reforçados com fibras, as hastes pultrudadas têm sido utilizadas em um número crescente de aplicações devido a características como baixa massa, elevada resistência mecânica, baixo custo de manutenção e alta resistência à corrosão, em particular quando comparadas com hastes confeccionadas em materiais convencionais equivalentes. Porém, os mecanismos de envelhecimento e de degradação dos compósitos poliméricos reforçados com fibras precisam ser mais bem compreendidos, particularmente os mecanismos de dano em condições de serviço, em aplicações de engenharia civil ou em águas profundas. Neste trabalho, foi avaliada a exposição de hastes pultrudadas produzidas a partir de fibras de carbono e vidro e resinas epóxi e éster-vinílica após 3000 horas em diferentes ambientes, como exposição à radiação UV, exposição à água do mar e exposição à água a 60 °C. Os principais aspectos microestruturais, físicos, térmicos, químicos, mecânicos e de vida útil das hastes foram avaliados antes e após as exposições. As hastes com fibras de carbono apresentaram maior resistência residual de forma geral quando comparadas às hastes de fibra de vidro, as quais perderam mais de 50% da sua resistência original após exposições de curta duração (744 h). Quando expostas à radiação UV, as hastes com fibras de carbono apresentaram maior resistência residual à tração, assim como quando submetidas a esforços combinados nos ensaios de SBS. O ambiente mais agressivo entre os estudados definitivamente foi a imersão em água destilada. Os resultados dos ensaios de short-beam apresentaram melhor relação com os efeitos de degradação do que os ensaios de resistência à tração. Através das análises microestruturais (MO e MEV) foi possível identificar alguns tipos de mecanismos de degradação atuantes em cada condição de envelhecimento acelerado. Após analisar uma combinação de fatores envolvidos, a resina epóxi, dentre as resinas estudas, foi a que apresentou melhores propriedades de interface quando utilizada com fibras de carbono. / Among products made with fiber-reinforced polymers, pultruded rods have been used in an increasing number of applications, due to such features as low weight, high strength, low maintenance costs, and high corrosion resistance, particularly when compared with rods manufactured with equivalent conventional materials. However, the ageing and degradation mechanisms of these polymer composite materials still need to be better understood, particularly the damage mechanisms under various service conditions, such as civil engineering or in deep water applications. This thesis presents an experimental study that evaluates the ageing of pultruded rods produced from reinforced carbon and glass fibers and epoxy and vinyl ester resin matrices when exposed to UV radiation, seawater and distilled water at 60 °C for 3000 hours. The degradation assessment in the different environments was made by analyzing and comparing the microstructural, physical, chemical, thermal and mechanical aspects and the lifespan of the pultruded composite rods before and after accelerated ageing. The carbon fiber rods presented a higher residual resistance considering all the aforementioned aspects when compared to the glass fibers rods, which lost more than 50% of their original resistance after short exposure (744 h) to weathering. When exposed to UV radiation, the carbon fiber rods showed higher residual resistance as compared with other types of degrading conditions. Distilled water was undoubtedly the most aggressive ageing factor in respect to all the evaluated properties and characteristics of the tested rods. The short-beam test results showed higher correlation with the degradation effects than the results of the tensile test. By means of microstructural analysis (SEM and OM), it was possible to identify some types of degradation mechanisms for each kind of applied accelerated ageing. After analyzing a combination of factors involved, it was possible to reach the conclusion that the epoxy resin incorporated with carbon fibers displayed the best overall performance among all possible resin/fiber couples

L'utilisation croissante des matériaux composites à matrice polymère dans les structures industrielles est impulsée par le besoin de contraintes environnementales tout en conservant d'excellentes propriétés mécaniques. L'évolution des procédés de fabrication et l'émergence de la pultrusion réactive permet la production de matériaux composites à matrice thermoplastique possédant des taux de fibres très importants. Ceci leur confère les propriétés longitudinales souhaitées mais ces procédés induisent une variabilité microstructurale importante. De plus, les pièces industrielles sont bien souvent sollicitées de façon complexe induisant des contraintes multiaxiales. Ces contraintes sont alors ``ressenties'' par la microstructure du matériau composite et par la matrice confinée par les fibres notamment. La variabilité microstructurale tend alors à amplifier les contraintes. C'est dans ce contexte qu'une approche multi-échelle macro-micro (globale/locale) expérimentale et numérique a été développée. Les mécanismes de déformation, d'endommagement et de rupture ont été expérimentalement analysés à l'échelle globale du matériau composite ainsi qu'à l'échelle locale de sa microstructure. Pour ce faire, de techniques expérimentales liées à la tomographie aux rayons X ont été mises en place et permettent d'observer in-situ l'évolution de la microstructure sollicitée. Il a été observé que l'endommagement se développe au sein de la matrice thermoplastique. Un modèle de comportement de la matrice endommageable a donc été mis au point à l'aide des approches issues de la mécanique des milieux poreux et permet de rendre compte des micro-mécanismes de déformation et d'endommagement de la matrice confinée par les fibres. Une approche de type ``top-down'' a été développée. Celle-ci permet de localiser les zones critiques d'une structure industrielle composite. Le chargement appliqué localement sur la pièce sert alors de conditions aux limites sur une microstructure réelle modélisée. Ainsi, il est possible de simuler la cinétique d'endommagement, permettant de comprendre l'amorçage et la propagation de fissures dans une structure industrielle. Cette approche appliquée au cas d'une canalisation composite sous pression a permis de déterminer des pressions d'amorçage de fissures en fonction de l'enroulement du composite sur la canalisation. / The use of composite materials composed of polymeric matrix have known a growing interest in industrial structures due to the ratio between structure weight reduction and reliable mechanical properties. The pultrusion with in-situ polymerization process allows high fiber volume fraction which provides the longitudinal mechanical properties needed nevertheless, such process induces a microstructural variability. These engineering structures are often submitted to complex multiaxial stresses. Such stresses are locally amplified due to the microstructural variability and particularly due to the fact that the matrix is constrained by the fibres. It is in this context that a multi-scale top-down (global / local) experimental and numerical approach has been developped. Deformation, damage and fracture mechanisms have been experimentally studied at both global and local scales. In order to do so, experimental technics related to X ray tomography have been used and allow in-situ observation of damage in the composite material submitted to different stresses. A constitutive model of the polymeric matrix has been developped thanks to approaches from the mechanics of porous media and allows to take into account the damage behavior of the constrained matrix. A multi-scale model allowing critical zones localization on industrial structures has been set up. The resulting stresses on the critical zones are then applied to the microstructure of the composite material. This model is able to take into account the damage cinetic, as well as transverse cracks initiation and propagation through the microstructure. Such approach has been used to determine cracks initiation pressures for different plies orientation of a composite pipe.

[pt] Materiais compósitos pultrudados poliméricos reforçados com fibra de vidro (PRFV) são aplicados em diversos setores da indústria por apresentarem boas resistências mecânicas, baixo peso específico e alta resistência à corrosão. A exposição a ambientes agressivos tais como imersão em água, condicionamento sob alta umidade relativa, temperatura baixa e elevada, ciclos térmicos e úmidos, bem como a combinação desses efeitos, tornou-se cada vez mais objeto de estudo para esses tipos de materiais. A compreensão dos efeitos das condições ambientais no comportamento do material é essencial para avaliar seu desempenho e, desta forma, garantir a segurança necessária ao projeto estrutural. Com o objetivo de compreender melhor a influência de diferentes condições ambientais nas propriedades do material compósito PRFV, foram estudados os efeitos da temperatura e umidade, além da ação combinada dessas duas condições, nas suas propriedades físicas, químicas, térmicas e mecânicas. Neste estudo, foram levados em conta aspectos importantes que influenciam o comportamento do material, como a resina utilizada, o grau de cura, e características químicas e físicas do material. Os ensaios experimentais foram conduzidos em quatro condições ambientais: (i) exposição a temperaturas moderadas/elevadas (70 graus C à 330 graus C), (ii) imersão em água deionizada (25 graus C, 55 graus C e 70 graus C), (iii) exposição à névoa salina em câmaras de envelhecimento higrotérmico (35 graus C, 55 graus C e 70 graus C), e (iv) exposição a ambiente externo real. Além disso, foram aplicados modelos teóricos para avaliação dos resultados. Foi observado que a temperatura, o tempo de condicionamento e a umidade são fatores preponderantes no comportamento do material. Adicionalmente, uma questão importante para o estudo de pultrudados reside na compreensão das propriedades interlaminares do material. Nesse contexto, a fratura interlaminar, associada às fissuras no plano longitudinal entre as camadas do material, é uma das principais causas de falha em compósitos pultrudados. Consequentemente, a análise da fratura em modo II, que avalia o mecanismo da propagação da fissura no plano interlaminar, vem ganhando espaço no estudo de materiais compósitos. A análise de fratura em modo II não é trivial ou normatizada para compósitos pultrudados PRFV, de forma que poucos dados e conclusões efetivas foram obtidos até o momento a esse respeito. Com o objetivo de suprir essa lacuna, realizou-se uma extensa investigação experimental, culminando na proposição de uma nova metodologia para avaliação da fratura em modo II em materiais compósitos poliméricos pultrudados reforçados com fibra de vidro (PRFV). / [en] Pultruded glass-fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP) composites are applied in various industrial sectors due to their good mechanical strength, low specific weight, and high resistance to corrosion. Exposure to aggressive environments has become an increasingly studied topic for these materials, such as immersion in water, conditioning under high relative humidity, low and high temperatures, thermal and humid cycles, as well as the combination of these effects. Understanding the effects of environment condition on material behavior is essential to evaluate its performance and ensure the necessary safety for structural design. In order to better understand the influence of environmental conditions on the properties of GFRPs, the effects of temperature and humidity, as well as the combined action of these two effects, on their physical, chemical, thermal, and mechanical properties were studied. Important aspects that influence the material s behavior were considered, such as the resin used, the degree of curing, and the chemical and physical characteristics of the material. Experimental tests were conducted under four environmental conditions: (i) exposure to moderate/high temperatures (70 degrees C to 330 degrees C), (ii) immersion in deionized water (25 degrees C, 55 degrees C, and 70 degrees C), (iii) exposure to salt spray in hygrothermal aging chambers (35 degrees C, 55 degrees C, and 70 degrees C), and (iv) exposure to real outdoor environment. In addition, theoretical models were applied to evaluate the results. It was observed that temperature, conditioning time, and moisture are predominant factors in material behavior. Additionally, a important issue for the study of pultruded composites lies in understanding the interlaminar properties of the material. In this context, interlaminar fracture, associated with longitudinal cracks between the layers of the material, is one of the main causes of failure in pultruded composites. Consequently, mode II fracture analysis, which evaluates the mechanism of crack propagation in the interlaminar plane, has been gaining ground in the study of composite materials. Mode II fracture analysis is not trivial or standardized for pultruded GFRP composites, so few data and effective conclusions have been obtained in this regard so far. In order to fill this gap, an extensive experimental investigation was carried out, culminating in the proposal of a new methodology for evaluating mode II fracture in pultruded GFRPs.

The Tom's Creek Bridge is a small-scale demonstration project involving the use of fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) composite girders as the main load carrying members. The project is intended to serve two purposes. First, by calculating bridge design parameters such as the dynamic load allowance, transverse wheel load distribution and deflections under service loading, the Tom's Creek Bridge will aid in modifying current AASHTO bridge design standards for use with FRP composite materials. Second, by evaluating the FRP girders after being exposed to service conditions, the project will begin to answer questions about the long-term performance of these advanced composite material beams when used in bridge design. This thesis details the In-Service analysis of the Tom's Creek Bridge. Five load tests, at six month intervals, were conducted on the bridge. Using mid-span strain and deflection data gathered from the FRP composite girders during these tests the above mentioned bridge design parameters have been determined. The Tom's Creek Bridge was determined to have a dynamic load allowance, IM, of 0.90, a transverse wheel load distribution factor, g, of 0.101 and a maximum deflection of L/488. Two bridge girders were removed from the Tom's Creek Bridge after fifteen months of service loading. These FRP composite girders were tested at the Structures and Materials Research Laboratory at Virginia Tech for stiffness and ultimate strength and compared to pre-service values for the same beams. This analysis indicates that after fifteen months of service, the FRP composite girders have not lost a significant amount of either stiffness or ultimate strength. / Master of Science

The Route 601 Bridge in Sugar Grove, Virginia spans 39 ft over Dickey Creek. The Bridge is the first to use the Strongwell 36 in. fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) double web beam (DWB) in its superstructure. Replacement of the old bridge began in June 2001, and construction of the new bridge was completed in October 2001. The bridge was field tested in October 2001 and June 2002. This thesis details the field evaluation of the Rt. 601 Bridge. Using mid span deflection and strain data from the October 2001 and June 2002 field tests, the primary goal of this research was to determine the following AASHTO bridge design parameters: wheel load distribution factor g, dynamic load allowance IM, and maximum deflection. The wheel load distribution factor was determined to be S/5, a dynamic load allowance was determined to be 0.30, and the maximum deflection of the bridge was L/1500. Deflection results were lower than the AASHTO L/800 limit. This discrepancy is attributed to partial composite action of the deck-to-girder connections, bearing restraint at the supports, and contribution of guardrail stiffness. Secondary goals of this research were to quantify the effect of diaphragm removal on girder distribution factor, determine torsion and axial effects of the FRP girders, compare responses to multiple lane symmetrical loading to superimposed single lane response, and compare the field test results to a finite element and a finite difference model. It was found that diaphragm removal had a small effect on the wheel load distribution factor. Torsional and axial effects were small. The bridge response to multilane loading coincided with superimposed single lane truck passes, and curb-stiffening effects in a finite difference model improved the accuracy of modeling the Rt. 601 Bridge behavior. / Master of Science

The Route 601 Bridge spans 39 ft over Dickey Creek in Sugar Grove, VA and represents the first use of Strongwell's 36 in. double web beam (DWB) as the main load carrying members for a traffic bridge. The bridge was designed for AASHTO HS20-44 and AASHTO alternate military loading with a targeted deflection limit of L/800. For the preliminary design, conservative properties for the 36 in. DWB were assumed based on experience at Virginia Tech with Strongwell's 8 in. DWB used in the Tom's Creek Bridge. An elastic modulus (E) of 6,000 ksi and a shear stiffness (kGA) of 20,000 ksi-in2 were assumed and used with Timoshenko shear deformable beam theory to characterize the beams and determine the deflections. This thesis details the experimental work conducted in conjunction with the design of the Route 601 Bridge, which had two goals. First, a deck-to-girder connection was tested to determine if a bolted connection could develop composite action between the girder and the deck. This connection was shown to provide a significant amount of composite action when used with the 8 in. DWB and a composite deck, but little or no composite action when used with the 36 in. DWB and a glue-laminated timber deck. Second, eleven 36 in. DWB's were tested to determine their stiffness properties (EI and kGA) to insure that these properties were above the values assumed in the preliminary design, and all the beams had stiffness properties that were close to or above the assumed values. The eleven beams were also proof tested to a moment equivalent to five times the service load moment to insure the safety of the Route 601 Bridge, and one beam was tested to failure to determine the failure mode and residual stiffness of the 36 in. DWB. Finally, based on these results eight beams were chosen for the Route 601 Bridge. / Master of Science