Cette thèse décrit les premiers essais de tomographie muonique par absorption et par déviation en utilisant des détecteurs Micromegas à haute granularité. Cette technique d'imagerie utilisant les rayons cosmiques gratuits, sans dangers et disponibles partout a démontré sa capacité à imager des objets de tailles variées. Afin de construire des outils compacts, précis, et portables, utiliser une voie d'électronique pour lire chaque motif de lecture est impossible. Pour éviter ce problème, des détecteurs multiplexés ont été conçus, testés et mis en situation dans différentes conditions. Il a été tiré parti des dernières améliorations concernant le détecteur Micromegas telles que le multiplexage génétique ou la lecture 2D par pistes sous une couche résistive. Les prototypes qui ont été fabriqués ont atteint une résolution de 300µm sur une surface d'un quart de mètre carré en ne nécessitant que 61 voies d'électronique. Grâce à ces détecteurs, des campagnes de prise de données ont été faites, à la fois dans l'environnement semi-contrôlé du centre CEA de Saclay et sur le plateau de Gizeh en Egypte. Ces deux campagnes ont permis d'imager avec succès le château d'eau du CEA Saclay ainsi que la pyramide de Khéops et ce malgré les conditions extrêmes que les télescopes à muon ont endurées. Des variations de température de plusieurs dizaines de Kelvin ont été enregistrées alors que l'acquisition de données se déroulait de manière stable, c'est-à-dire que les variations du gain n'impactaient pas le système d'auto déclenchement. Cette stabilité a été rendue possible grâce à un ajustement des hautes tensions vis à vis des conditions environnementales. Cela constitue la première mondiale concernant le fonctionnement d'un dispositif de reconstruction de trace à base de Micromégas en extérieur. En parallèle des expériences de muographie par déviation ont été menées. Un dispositif imageant des objets de petite taille est capable de distinguer divers matériaux sur une échelle de temps de l'ordre d'une journée. Une plus grande installation a permis d'imager un conteneur entier. La résolution du problème inverse a été faite en utilisant à la fois l'algorithme simple dit du PoCA ainsi que celui de maximisation de vraisemblance proposé par Schultz et son équipe. / This thesis describes the first attempts to perform both absorption and scattering muon tomography using high granularity Micromegas detectors. This imaging technique using the free, available and harmless cosmic ray muons radiation shows great possibilities to study various sized objects. In order to make compact and precise portable devices, using one channel of electronics per readout pattern is not possible. To avoid this problem multiplexed detectors have been designed, extensively tested and used in numerous conditions. Latest developments in Micromegas design have been used such as the genetic multiplexing and the 2D strip readout using a resistive layer. The prototypes made were able to achieve a 300µm resolution at the scale of 50cm while using only 61 channels of electronics. Using these detectors, muography data taking campaigns have been performed both in the semi-controlled environment of the Saclay site of CEA and in the wild of the Giza plateau in Egypt. These two campaigns succeeded in imaging the CEA Saclay water tower and the Khufu's pyramid despite the extreme conditions endured by the Micromegas muon telescopes. Large temperature variations of a few tens of Kelvin have been recorded together with a stable operation i.e. an even gain ensuring a steady self triggering system. This stability was achieved using high voltage variations with respect to the environmental conditions. Together with this very first worldwide operation of a Micromegas-based tracker outside a laboratory, scattering muographies have also been done. A small setup imaging handheld objects performed well in separating various materials in time scales of the order of the day while a bigger 1m² setup allowing the scan of a full container was successfully operated. The inversion of the ill-posed problem of the muon scattering was performed using the crude PoCA method and the maximum likelihood one described by Schultz et al.

<p>The aims of this thesis are to (1) analyze the predictability (indicators) of plant and fungal species diversity in old-growth forests, and (2) assess the history and biodiversity of woodland key habitats (WKHs) and their potential to maintain species diversity in fragmented boreal forest landscapes. </p><p>Predictability was explored in Granlandet nature reserve, an unexploited landscape composed of discrete old-growth Picea forest patches of varying size isolated by wetland, reflecting conditions of insular biota at stochastic equilibrium. Data from 46 patches (0.2-12 ha) showed that most species were rare. However, species richness and composition patterns exhibited a high degree of predictability, which strengthen the possibility to apply biodiversity indicators in old-growth forest stands. Area was a key factor. The increase in species richness starts to level out at 2-3 ha. Large patches host more Red-list species in their interiors than do small ones, i.e. stand size is an important qualitative aspect of old-growth habitat. Nestedness emerged in relation to area but also in equal-sized plots. Structural complexity and habitat quality were important for species richness and compositional patterns, and small habitats of high quality could harbor many rare species. Monitoring of wood-fungi on downed logs showed that species diversity on downed logs changed over periods of 5-10 years and that the occurrences of annual species were unpredictable. It is suggested that monitoring of species with durable fruit bodies (mainly polypores) is likely to be a feasible approach to obtain comparable data over time.</p><p>Assessments of biodiversity of WKHs were performed in two areas with contrasting histories of forest exploitation, namely in south boreal and north boreal Sweden. Analyses of the history of 15 south boreal WKHs showed that fire-suppression, selective logging until mid-20th century and abandonment by modern forestry has shaped their forest structure. These WKHs are not untouched forests, they lack key structural components and harbor few Red-list species. Artificial interventions to restore natural processes and patterns are needed to further increase their suitability for threatned species. Modeling analyses of species richness in 32 WKHs in north boreal Sweden, some of which have not been isolated by modern forestry until recently, indicated an excess of crustose lichen species, i.e. WKHs may face delayed species extinctions. By contrast, the results indicate that wood-fungi have tracked the environmental changes. Differences in substrate dynamics between epiphytes on living trees and species growing on decaying logs may explain the diffeence between species groups. The results indicate that population densities of Red-list species were low, which may result in further depletion of species diversity.</p><p>Continuing species declines and extinctions are likely if not conservation of WKHs are combined with other considerations in th managed forest landscape. Both WKHs and their surroundings must be managed and designed to maintain biodiversity over time. For a successful future conservation of boreal forest biodiversity monitoring of WKHs must be combined with monitoring of refeence areas. </p>

The aims of this thesis are to (1) analyze the predictability (indicators) of plant and fungal species diversity in old-growth forests, and (2) assess the history and biodiversity of woodland key habitats (WKHs) and their potential to maintain species diversity in fragmented boreal forest landscapes. Predictability was explored in Granlandet nature reserve, an unexploited landscape composed of discrete old-growth Picea forest patches of varying size isolated by wetland, reflecting conditions of insular biota at stochastic equilibrium. Data from 46 patches (0.2-12 ha) showed that most species were rare. However, species richness and composition patterns exhibited a high degree of predictability, which strengthen the possibility to apply biodiversity indicators in old-growth forest stands. Area was a key factor. The increase in species richness starts to level out at 2-3 ha. Large patches host more Red-list species in their interiors than do small ones, i.e. stand size is an important qualitative aspect of old-growth habitat. Nestedness emerged in relation to area but also in equal-sized plots. Structural complexity and habitat quality were important for species richness and compositional patterns, and small habitats of high quality could harbor many rare species. Monitoring of wood-fungi on downed logs showed that species diversity on downed logs changed over periods of 5-10 years and that the occurrences of annual species were unpredictable. It is suggested that monitoring of species with durable fruit bodies (mainly polypores) is likely to be a feasible approach to obtain comparable data over time. Assessments of biodiversity of WKHs were performed in two areas with contrasting histories of forest exploitation, namely in south boreal and north boreal Sweden. Analyses of the history of 15 south boreal WKHs showed that fire-suppression, selective logging until mid-20th century and abandonment by modern forestry has shaped their forest structure. These WKHs are not untouched forests, they lack key structural components and harbor few Red-list species. Artificial interventions to restore natural processes and patterns are needed to further increase their suitability for threatned species. Modeling analyses of species richness in 32 WKHs in north boreal Sweden, some of which have not been isolated by modern forestry until recently, indicated an excess of crustose lichen species, i.e. WKHs may face delayed species extinctions. By contrast, the results indicate that wood-fungi have tracked the environmental changes. Differences in substrate dynamics between epiphytes on living trees and species growing on decaying logs may explain the diffeence between species groups. The results indicate that population densities of Red-list species were low, which may result in further depletion of species diversity. Continuing species declines and extinctions are likely if not conservation of WKHs are combined with other considerations in th managed forest landscape. Both WKHs and their surroundings must be managed and designed to maintain biodiversity over time. For a successful future conservation of boreal forest biodiversity monitoring of WKHs must be combined with monitoring of refeence areas.