A new quasi-dimensional, multi-zone model has been developed to describe the combustion processes occurring inside a dual fuel engine. A dual fuel engine is a compression ignition engine in which a homogeneous lean premixed charge of gaseous fuel and air is ignited by a pilot fuel spray. The atomisation and preparation of the pilot leads to the formation of multiple ignition centres from which turbulent flame fronts develop. The energy release in a dual fuel engine is therefore a combination of that from the combustion of the pilot fuel spray and lean premixed charge. Hence, the dual fuel combustion process is complex, combining elements of both conventional spark and compression ignition engines. The dual fuel engine is beneficial as it can achieve significant reductions in emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), as well as reducing emissions of oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and particulate matter (PM).

Le nouveau procédé d’élaboration par solidification dirigée de lingots de Si quasi-monocristallin (« monolike ») offre une alternative séduisante à l’utilisation plus coûteuse de monocristaux pour la fabrication de cellules photovoltaïques à architecture avancée et haut rendement. Toutefois, la présence locale de zones de fortes densités de dislocations entraîne une dispersion des rendements obtenus.Cette Thèse présente une analyse détaillée des mécanismes de formation des structures de dislocations lors de la cristallisation monolike et de leur influence sur les propriétés électriques du matériau. Des conclusions pratiques en sont tirées pour l’amélioration du procédé.Des expériences de cristallisation en four pilote ont été réalisées en faisant varier les paramètres tenant à la mise en œuvre du pavage de germes et à la réutilisation de ceux-ci, à l’orientation cristallographique de croissance, et au dopage en élément durcissant (Ge). Des tests complémentaires de recuit et de flexion 4 points à haute température ont été utilisés pour analyser l’influence du niveau de contrainte et du temps.Une caractérisation avancée des structures de dislocations a été réalisée par imagerie X synchrotron. En arrière du front de croissance, les dislocations s’organisent en structures cellulaires qui correspondent à l’état final de fluage stationnaire. Les dislocations qui émergent au front peuvent, par accumulation locale, générer des domaines désorientés de forme conique, qui présentent des angles de rotation croissants autour de la direction de solidification, et s’étendent latéralement lors de la progression du front. Les fortes activités recombinantes de ces défauts ont été caractérisées par LBIC et Photoluminescence. Un choix approprié des orientations et des conditions de mise en œuvre des germes permet de s’affranchir des défauts initiés à l’interface germes/lingot. Toutefois, de tels défauts peuvent aussi être générés par accumulation locale de dislocations en partie supérieure des lingots sous l’effet de contraintes élevées.Ces derniers défauts n’ont pas été observés dans les lingots cristallisés dans les directions <110> et <112>, ce qui constitue un avantage par rapport aux lingots <100>. Par contre, des macles et sous-joints se sont propagés à partir des joints de grains de rotation créés volontairement, de sorte que l’effet de l’angle de rotation reste à analyser. Enfin, l’addition de germanium s’est révélée très efficace pour ralentir la multiplication des dislocations lors de tests de flexion sous faibles contraintes. Toutefois, son application à la cristallisation nécessitera une meilleure planéité du front de cristallisation et un brassage forcé du bain pour éviter une ségrégation radiale de Ge. L’utilisation d’autres éléments durcissants est également envisagée. / The new generation of directionally solidified “monolike” Si ingots presents an attractive alternative to high-cost monocrystals for the manufacture of high performance solar cells with advanced architecture. However, local zones with high densities of dislocations still affect the overall solar cell efficiency.In the present work, the mechanisms of formation of dislocations structures during monolike growth and their influence on the electrical properties of the material were analyzed, and practical conclusions were drawn for the improvement of the process.Pilot scale crystal growth experiments were performed with varying parameters related to seed pavement and seed recycling, crystallographic orientation of the growth, and doping with a strengthening element (Ge). Complementary annealing and 4-point bending tests at high temperature were used to analyze the influence of stress level and time under stress.Advanced structural characterization of dislocations structures was performed by synchrotron X-ray imaging. Behind the growth front, dislocations organize in cellular patterns which correspond to a quasi-stationary creep stage, reached in the solid after long time under stress at high temperature. Dislocations that emerge at the growth front develop, from local sources, cone-shaped misoriented domains, which present increasing tilt around the growth axis and expand laterally as growth proceeds. Characterization by LBIC and Photoluminescence showed that these defects have the highest recombination activities. The sources of these defects located at the seed ingot interface can be suppressed by proper choice of seeds orientations and arrangement. However, another source is bunching of dislocations at the growth front under the higher stresses upper in the ingot.In <110> and <112> grown ingots, dislocation bunching was not observed inside the monocrystalline parts, which shows an advantage of these orientations over <100>. On another hand, twins and sub-grain boundaries propagated from higher angle grain boundaries with these growth directions, and further studies are needed to prevent the generation of such defects. Finally, Ge doping was effective to reduce dislocations multiplication in bending under low stresses. However, its application to crystal growth will require a planar growth interface, and forced melt mixing to avoid Ge radial segregation. New researches inspired by the addition of strengthening elements are now in development.

This thesis presents observations of the dynamical features of the stratosphere, mesosphere and lower thermosphere. These are made from various observational techniques and model comparisons. A focus of the work is the two-day wave at high latitudes in the MLT region. This has revealed significant wave amplitudes in both summer and winter. However, these waves are shown to have very different origins. Using satellite data, the summertime wave is found to be the classic quasi-two-day wave which maximises at mid-latitudes in the MLT region. The wintertime wave is found to be a mesospheric manifestation of an eastward-propagating wave originating in the stratosphere and likely generated by barotropic and baroclinic instabilities in the polar night jet. The horizontal winds from Meteor and MF radars have been used to measure and produce climatologies of the Lunar M2 tide at Esrange in the Arctic (68°N), Rothera and Davis in the Antarctic (68°S), Castle Eaton at mid-latitude (52°N) and Ascension Island at Equatorial latitudes (8°S). These observations present the longest period of lunar semi-diurnal tidal observations in the MLT region to date, with a 16-year dataset from the UK meteor radar. Comparisons with the Vial and Forbes (1994) lunar tidal model are also made which reveal generally good agreement. Non-migrating lunar tides have been investigated. This uses lunar tidal results from equatorial stations, including the Ascension Island (8°S) meteor radar. Also lunar tidal results from the Rothera meteor wind radar (68°S, 68°W) and the Davis MF radar (68°S, 78°E) are considered. Both of these stations are on the edge of the Antarctic continent. It is demonstrated that there are often consistent tidal phase offsets between similar latitude stations. This suggests that non-migrating modes are likely to be present in the lunar semi-diurnal tidal structure and have significant amplitudes.

New Quasi-optical sensor technology, based on the millimetre and submillimetre band of the electromagnetic spectrum, is actually being implemented for many commercial and scientific applications such as remote sensing, astronomy, collision avoidance radar, etc. These novel devices make use of integrated active and passive structures usually as planar arrays. The electromagnetic design and computer simulation of these new structures requires novel numerical techniques. The Finite Difference Time Domain method (FDTD) is well suited for the electromagnetic analysis of integrated devices using active non-linear elements, but is difficult to use for large and/or periodic structures. A rigorous revision of this popular numerical technique is performed in order to permit FDTD to model practical quasi-optical devices. The system impulse response or discrete Green's function (DGF) for FDTD is determined as a polynomial then the FDTD technique is reformulated as a convolution sum. This new alternative algorithm avoids Absorbing Boundary Conditions (ABC's) and can save large amounts of memory to model wire or slot structures. Many applications for the DGF can be foreseen, going beyond quasi-optical components. As an example, the exact ABC based on the DGF for FDTD is implemented for a single grid wall is presented. The problem of time domain analysis of planar periodic structures modelling only one periodic cell is also investigated. Simple Periodic Boundary Conditions (PBC) can be implemented for FDTD, but they can not handle periodic devices (such as phased shift arrays or dichroic screens) which produce fields periodic in a 4D basis (three spatial dimensions plus time). An extended FDTD scheme is presented which uses Lorentz type coordinate transformations to reduce the problem to 3D. The analysis of non-linear devices using FDTD is also considered in the thesis. In this case, the non linear devices are always model using an equivalent lumped element circuit. These circuits are introduced into the FDTD grid by means of the current density following an iterative implicit algorithm. As a demonstration of the technique a quasi-optically feed slot ring mixer with integral lens is designed for operation at 650 GHz.

Incorporating survey weights into likelihood-based analysis is a controversial issue because the sampling weights are not simply equal to the reciprocal of selection probabilities but they are adjusted for various characteristics such as age, race, etc. Some adjustments are based on nonresponses as well. This adjustment is accomplished using a combination of probability calculations. When we build a logistic regression model to predict categorical outcomes with survey data, the sampling weights should be considered if the sampling design does not give each individual an equal chance of being selected in the sample. We rescale these weights to sum to an equivalent sample size because the variance is too small with the original weights. These new weights are called the adjusted weights. The old method is to apply quasi-likelihood maximization to make estimation with the adjusted weights. We develop a new method based on the correct likelihood for logistic regression to include the adjusted weights. In the new method, the adjusted weights are further used to adjust for both covariates and intercepts. We explore the differences and similarities between the quasi-likelihood and the correct likelihood methods. We use both binary logistic regression model and multinomial logistic regression model to estimate parameters and apply the methods to body mass index data from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. The results show some similarities and differences between the old and new methods in parameter estimates, standard errors and statistical p-values.

As ondas de Rossby são o mecanismo de ajuste às perturbações de grande escala dos fluidos geofísicos. Elas podem ser geradas localmente, forçadas pelo rotacional da tensão de cisalhamento do vento, ou remotamente, devido às perturbações na altura da picnoclina na borda leste. Medidas altimétricas da anomalia da altura do mar tem fornecido evidências robustas da existência destas ondas. Estudos recentes mostram que vórtices não lineares de mesoescala são responsáveis por uma grande parte da variabilidade dos registros altimétricos, tendo sido observados propagando juntamente com as ondas de Rossby. Os objetivos deste estudo são identificar (1) as regiões onde as ondas de Rossby longas lineares explicam as observações, (2) qual mecanismo de geração é dominante e (3) se as ondas propagam-se de forma contínua em condições de não linearidade. Um modelo linear de 1&#189; camada de ondas de Rossby forçado por dados de tensão de cisalhamento do vento de escaterômetros é utilizado para reproduzir as anomalia da altura do mar. As correlações entre os resultados do modelo linear e os dados altimétricos são de até 0,88. Os resultados sugerem que a dinâmica linear de ondas de Rossby longas explica uma parte significativa da variabilidade anual da anomalia da altura do mar nas regiões tropicais. A oscilação da picnoclina na borda leste é o principal mecanismo gerador de ondas de Rossby nos oceanos Atlântico e Índico, enquanto no Pacífico a fonte dominante das ondas é a forçante atmosférica local. Um modelo quase-geostrófico não linear é utilizado para analisar como as ondas de Rossby geradas na borda leste propagam-se e dissipam-se em condições idealizadas. Em latitudes mais baixas que 32&#176;S, as ondas atravessam toda a bacia oceânica até adentrar a região de meandramento da corrente de borda oeste. Nesta região, a energia é espalhada em todas as bandas de frequência. As ondas de Rossby que estão na latitude crítica tem um papel intermediário na cascata de energia. Em latitudes mais altas que 32&#176;S, as ondas de Rossby não cruzam a totalidade da bacia oceânica, tendo sua energia transferida para outros períodos em uma distância de pelo menos 1000 km da borda oeste. / Rossby waves are the large scale mechanism of adjustment to perturbations of geophysical fluids. They can be generated locally, due to forcing by wind stress curl, or remotely, due to perturbations in the pycnocline level at the eastern boundary. Altimetric measurements of sea level anomaly have been providing sturdy evidences of the existence of these waves. Recent studies argue that mesoscale eddies are responsible for a substantial amount of the variability of the altimeter records. Eddies have been shown to propagate along with Rossby waves. The purposes of this study are (1) to identify the regions where linear long Rossby waves explain the observations, (2) to determine which generation mechanism is dominant, and (3) to verify if these waves can continuously propagate in nonlinearity conditions. A linear 1&#189; layer model forced by scatterometer wind stress data has been used to reproduce the sea level anomaly. Correlations between the results of the linear model and the altimetric data are up to 0.88. Results suggest that the linear long Rossby wave dynamics explain a significant part of the sea level anomaly annual variability in the tropical oceans. The pycnocline fluctuations at the eastern boundary are the main mechanism of generation of Rossby waves in the Atlantic and Indian oceans. The local atmospheric forcing is the principal source of the waves in the Pacific Ocean. A quasi-geostrophic nonlinear model has been used to analyze how the Rossby waves generated at the eastern boundary propagate and dissipate in idealized conditions. In latitudes lower than 32&#176;S, the waves cross all the ocean basin until entering the region where the western boundary current meanders. In this region, energy is scattered throughout the spectrum. The Rossby waves that are in their critical latitude have an intermediate role in the energy cascade. In latitudes higher than 32&#176;S, the Rossby waves fail to completely cross the ocean basin. Their energy is transfered to other periods in a distance of at least 1000 km from the western boundary.

No trabalho estuda-se o crescimento de trincas em carga monotônica e cíclica nos casos de materiais quase-frágeis, introduzindo uma lei de dano cíclico. Revisam-se conceitos sobre modelos coesivos, leis de carga-descarga, leis de evolução de dano e efeito de escala. É seguido o modelo coesivo irreversível proposto por Wang e Siegmund (2006). Em particular se dá ênfase aos efeitos de escala não estatísticos. O modelo de zona coesiva irreversível apresenta uma formulação de dano e considera carregamento em fadiga. Quando o tamanho estrutural é reduzido (ou as trinca se extendem), a fratura por fadiga não mais ocorre por propagação de trinca, mas sim por uma decoesão uniforme. O objetivo desde trabalho é implementar este modelo e verificar sua potencialidade na captura de efeitos de escala, comparando com experimentos e dados disponíveis na literatura. / At present work is intended to study crack growth in cyclic and monotonic loading in the case of quasi-brittle materials, introducing a damage mechanism, is reviewed concepts of cohesive models, loading-unloading laws, damage evolution laws and effect of scale. The irreversible cohesive zone model proposed by Wang e Siegmund (2006) is followed. In particular emphasizes in the not statistical size effects. The irreversible cohesive zone model, presents a damage formulation and considers fatigue loading. It is demonstrated in this study that, when the structure size is reduced (or extend cracks), the fatigue fracture no longer occurs by crack propagation, then occurs by uniform decohesion . The objetive of this work is implementing this model and verify its capability to capture the scale effect compared with experiments and data available in literature.

<p>Posmatra se problem minimizacije bez ograničenja. U determinističkom&nbsp;slučaju ti problemi se uspe&scaron;no re&scaron;avaju iterativnim Kvazi Njutnovim postupcima.&nbsp;Ovde se istražuje &nbsp;stohastički slučaj, kada su poznate vrednosti funkcije cilja i njenog gradijenta na koje je uticao &scaron;um. Koristi se novi način određivanja dužina koraka, koji kombinuje metod linijskog pretraživanja i metod stohastičke aproksimacije tako da zadrži dobre osobine oba pristupa i obezbedi veću efikasnost postupka. Metod je testiran u kombinaciji sa vi&scaron;e načina izbora pravca u iterativnom postupku. Dokazana je konvergencija novog postupka i testiranjem na velikom broju standardnih test problema pokazana njegova efikasnost. Takođe se za re&scaron;avanje problema ekvilibriuma u Neoklasičnoj ekonomiji predlaže i dokazuje konvergencija jednog Fiksnog Njutnovog postupka. U zadatku nalaženja re&scaron;enja za niz problema kojima se preciznije modelira slučajni sistem, ovaj Fiksni Njutnov postupak ostvaruje veliku u&scaron;tedu CPU vremena u odnosu na Njutnov metod. U prvom delu teze je dat op&scaron;ti teoretski uvod. U drugom delu je dat pregled relevantnih rezultata iz posmatranih oblasti zajedno sa dva originalna rezultata. U trećem &nbsp;delu su dati rezultati numeričkih testova.</p> / <p>The problem under consideration is unconstrained minimization pro-blem. The problem in deterministic case is often solved with Quasi Newton met-hods. In noisy environment, which is considered, new approach for step length along descent direction is used. The new approach combines line search and stoc-hastic&nbsp; approximation method using good characteristics of both enabling better efficiency. The convergence is proved. New step length is tested with three de-scent directions. Many standard test problems show the efficiency of the met-hod. Also, a new, affordable procedure based on application of the fixed Newton method for a sequence of equilibrium problems generated by simulation is intro-duced. The convergence conditions of the method are derived. The numerical results show a clear difference in the quality of information obtained by solving a sequence of problems if compared with the single equilibrium problem. In the first part general theoretical introduction is given. In the second part a survey of results from scientific community is given together with original results. The third part contains many numerical tests of new methods that show its efficiency.</p>

As ondas de Rossby são o mecanismo de ajuste às perturbações de grande escala dos fluidos geofísicos. Elas podem ser geradas localmente, forçadas pelo rotacional da tensão de cisalhamento do vento, ou remotamente, devido às perturbações na altura da picnoclina na borda leste. Medidas altimétricas da anomalia da altura do mar tem fornecido evidências robustas da existência destas ondas. Estudos recentes mostram que vórtices não lineares de mesoescala são responsáveis por uma grande parte da variabilidade dos registros altimétricos, tendo sido observados propagando juntamente com as ondas de Rossby. Os objetivos deste estudo são identificar (1) as regiões onde as ondas de Rossby longas lineares explicam as observações, (2) qual mecanismo de geração é dominante e (3) se as ondas propagam-se de forma contínua em condições de não linearidade. Um modelo linear de 1&#189; camada de ondas de Rossby forçado por dados de tensão de cisalhamento do vento de escaterômetros é utilizado para reproduzir as anomalia da altura do mar. As correlações entre os resultados do modelo linear e os dados altimétricos são de até 0,88. Os resultados sugerem que a dinâmica linear de ondas de Rossby longas explica uma parte significativa da variabilidade anual da anomalia da altura do mar nas regiões tropicais. A oscilação da picnoclina na borda leste é o principal mecanismo gerador de ondas de Rossby nos oceanos Atlântico e Índico, enquanto no Pacífico a fonte dominante das ondas é a forçante atmosférica local. Um modelo quase-geostrófico não linear é utilizado para analisar como as ondas de Rossby geradas na borda leste propagam-se e dissipam-se em condições idealizadas. Em latitudes mais baixas que 32&#176;S, as ondas atravessam toda a bacia oceânica até adentrar a região de meandramento da corrente de borda oeste. Nesta região, a energia é espalhada em todas as bandas de frequência. As ondas de Rossby que estão na latitude crítica tem um papel intermediário na cascata de energia. Em latitudes mais altas que 32&#176;S, as ondas de Rossby não cruzam a totalidade da bacia oceânica, tendo sua energia transferida para outros períodos em uma distância de pelo menos 1000 km da borda oeste. / Rossby waves are the large scale mechanism of adjustment to perturbations of geophysical fluids. They can be generated locally, due to forcing by wind stress curl, or remotely, due to perturbations in the pycnocline level at the eastern boundary. Altimetric measurements of sea level anomaly have been providing sturdy evidences of the existence of these waves. Recent studies argue that mesoscale eddies are responsible for a substantial amount of the variability of the altimeter records. Eddies have been shown to propagate along with Rossby waves. The purposes of this study are (1) to identify the regions where linear long Rossby waves explain the observations, (2) to determine which generation mechanism is dominant, and (3) to verify if these waves can continuously propagate in nonlinearity conditions. A linear 1&#189; layer model forced by scatterometer wind stress data has been used to reproduce the sea level anomaly. Correlations between the results of the linear model and the altimetric data are up to 0.88. Results suggest that the linear long Rossby wave dynamics explain a significant part of the sea level anomaly annual variability in the tropical oceans. The pycnocline fluctuations at the eastern boundary are the main mechanism of generation of Rossby waves in the Atlantic and Indian oceans. The local atmospheric forcing is the principal source of the waves in the Pacific Ocean. A quasi-geostrophic nonlinear model has been used to analyze how the Rossby waves generated at the eastern boundary propagate and dissipate in idealized conditions. In latitudes lower than 32&#176;S, the waves cross all the ocean basin until entering the region where the western boundary current meanders. In this region, energy is scattered throughout the spectrum. The Rossby waves that are in their critical latitude have an intermediate role in the energy cascade. In latitudes higher than 32&#176;S, the Rossby waves fail to completely cross the ocean basin. Their energy is transfered to other periods in a distance of at least 1000 km from the western boundary.

More than 59 million children are out of schools across the globe (UNESCO Institute for Statistics and UNICEF, 2015), despite the promise of education for all children by the year 2015. The situation is more pronounced in developing countries particularly in Africa and South Asia. Strategies adopted globally to attract children towards schools rarely considered improving the existing physical environments, despite evidence that primary school aged children (five to 12 years) learn more effectively when their education is incorporated with surrounding environments (Khan & Islam, 2014; Lieberman & Hoody, 1998; Mygind, 2009). This study investigated the potential of a primary school ground to be an effective learning environment and explores how the design of an outdoor environment can contribute to children’s learning. This interdisciplinary project is underpinned by classic psychological theories of child development (e.g. Piaget, 1964 and Vygotsky et al., 1978), while Gibson’s (1979) ‘Concept of Affordance’ and Barker’s (1976) ‘Theory of Behaviour Settings’ have provided the framework for exploring the relationship between the school ground and children’s learning. A quasi-experimental action research project was carried out in a Government primary school in Bangladesh, which included the design and development of the school ground, with the direct participation of children, teachers and parents. Another primary school (with no change to the outdoor environment) was used as a control school to compare the outcomes. A mixed methods approach to conduct this quasi-experiment included data from existing exam scores, questionnaire survey, observation and behaviour-mapping, focus group discussions and in-depth interviews. The key findings from this study indicate an overall positive influence of the designed outdoor environment on children’s academic performance and their motivation to learn. An increase in children’s cognitive, social and physical activities in the school ground is also evidenced by the study. The analysis of the data likewise reveals that different behaviour settings of the school ground offered opportunities for different teaching and learning activities. Both natural settings and settings with built features afforded more focused activities (e.g. gardens afforded exploration and connection with nature, while the play area afforded more functional play). Additionally, settings comprised of both natural and built elements (e.g. the area with loose materials and huts) and areas in close proximity with natural ones (i.e. the open yard) accommodated diverse and multiple teaching and learning activities (e.g. measuring, building/constructing and exploring). The findings further suggest that the design and use of the school ground had a surprising and unintended positive effect on teachers’ motivation and pedagogy. Through reflecting on the use of different landscape elements and settings in the school ground during formal outdoor classes and informal play times, the study has further come to propose some design recommendations for other new school grounds as well as the redesign of existing ones.