Les produits issus des technologies Silicium tendent à exploiter au maximum les performancesdes transistors MOS tout en les soumettant à des profils de mission très agressifs du point de vuede la fiabilité. Les concepteurs sont ainsi à la recherche du meilleur compromis entre performanceet fiabilité.Historiquement, l’étude de la fiabilité du transistor MOS et le développement des modèlessous jacents ont été menés sur la base de contrainte de vieillissement statique. Avec le développementdes produits à hautes performances dans le domaine de la radiofréquence (RF), laquestion de la fiabilité pour ce type d’application se pose. Ainsi, une extension des modèles defiabilité doit être réalisée afin de quantifier le vieillissement des paramètres clés RF soumis àdes contraintes statiques mais également RF. C’est cette extension de la fiabilité des transistorsMOS dans le domaine RF qui constitue le sujet de ce travail de thèse.Dans ce manuscrit, le fonctionnement du transistor MOS est décrit et sa fiabilité est introduite.Les différents mécanismes de dégradation sont étudiés et leurs modèles associés décrits.Sont ensuite présentés un banc de mesure et une méthodologie nécessaire à l’étude du vieillissementdes transistors dans le domaine RF, ainsi qu’à l’extension des modèles de fiabilité audomaine RF. / Products using nowadays silicon technology are generally targeting aggressive specificationsand push the developers to determine the best compromise between performance and reliability.Main front-end degradation mechanisms are historically studied and modeled under static stressconditions and focus on the static MOS transistor parameters.With the development of product targeting high performances in the radio frequency (RF)domain, the reliability is becoming a first order concern. Thus an extension of the actual staticreliability models must be done to quantify the aging of key RF parameters under static andRF stress. In this context, this work focuses on the extension of the MOS transistor reliabilityregarding the study of RF parameters and also the application of RF stress.After describing the MOS transistor properties, the reliability aspect is introduced and theemphasis is put on the different degradation mechanisms and their associated models. Thisallows the development of an experimental setup and the required methodology to investigatethe device aging in the RF domain and to extend actual static models.

abstract: The non-quasi-static (NQS) description of device behavior is useful in fast switching and high frequency circuit applications. Hence, it is necessary to develop a fast and accurate compact NQS model for both large-signal and small-signal simulations. A new relaxation-time-approximation based NQS MOSFET model, consistent between transient and small-signal simulations, has been developed for surface-potential-based MOSFET compact models. The new model is valid for all regions of operation and is compatible with, and at low frequencies recovers, the quasi-static (QS) description of the MOSFET. The model is implemented in two widely used circuit simulators and tested for speed and convergence. It is verified by comparison with technology computer aided design (TCAD) simulations and experimental data, and by application of a recently developed benchmark test for NQS MOSFET models. In addition, a new and simple technique to characterize NQS and gate resistance, Rgate, MOS model parameters from measured data has been presented. In the process of experimental model verification, the effects of bulk resistance on MOSFET characteristics is investigated both theoretically and experimentally to separate it from the NQS effects. / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. Electrical Engineering 2012

Fiber reinforced polymer composite laminates make up more than 50% of modern aircrafts. Such composite laminates are exposed to various environmental and in-service thermo-mechanical load conditions. Transverse/intralaminar cracking is usually the first form of damage appears in a composite laminate and they tend to increase in number during the service life. The growth in number of these cracks significantly degrades the thermo-elastic properties of the composite laminate and eventually leads to final failure. Thus, it is important to predict the crack density (number of cracks per unit length) growth in both non-interactive crack density region and interactive crack density region and its effect in thermo-elastic properties degradation. Non-interactive crack density region is the region where the cracks are far apart and stress perturbation between cracks do not overlap. Interactive crack density region is where the cracks are close to each other and stress perturbation between cracks overlaps and affects the formation of new cracks. In this study, transverse cracks in thick Glass Fiber Epoxy (GF/EP) cross-ply composite laminates under quasi-static tensile loading and tension-tension fatigue loading have been analyzed and predicted. In the first paper attached here, increase in number of transverse cracks in GF/EP cross-ply laminates under quasi-static tensile loading at room temperature (RT) are analyzed using 2 material systems. The failure stress distribution in 90° plies of the laminates is defined by Weibull distribution and the Weibull parameters are determined from crack density versus applied thermo-mechanical transverse stress in 90° layer (σTCLT) data points within the non-interactive crack density region. The crack density growth is then predicted versus the σTCLT and applied mechanical strain in the laminate from the determined Weibull parameters using Monte Carlo method and the stress distribution models between adjacent cracks. The predicted results using the novel stress distribution model introduced here were in good agreement with the non-interactive and interactive crack density regions of test results. The importance of using the Monte Carlo method and novel stress distribution model to predict the whole crack density region have been emphasized in the article, in addition to that it also redefined the interval of non-interactive crack density region.  The second paper expands the concept from the first paper, to address the tension-tension fatigue loading at RT. It deals with the crack density analysis and prediction in [0/90]s GF/EP laminate under fatigue loading at RT. The fatigue tests were performed at 3 maximum stress levels. Here the Weibull parameters were determined from the data points within the non-interactive crack density region in quasi-static and fatigue loading. From the determined Weibull parameters of each stress level and using Monte Carlo method and the novel stress distribution model, the crack density versus the number of fatigue cycles were predicted and in good agreement with the fatigue test results at the respective stress level. The intention here was to use Weibull parameters of one stress level to predict crack density at arbitrary stress levels. Based on it, the predicted results were not sufficiently good and suggested to revisit the Weibull parameter determination by performing fatigue tests at two stress levels.  In the attached paper 3, new methodology on crack density growth simulation and Weibull parameter determination in tension-tension fatigue loading has been developed. In the newly developed methodology, in detailed fatigue tests are performed at one maximum stress level to obtain all data points and at higher stress level to obtain one data point that is a crack density data point at certain number of cycles to determine Weibull parameters. Using the determined Weibull parameters from non-interactive crack density region, the whole crack density region was successfully predicted for other stress levels.

Nonlinear explicit finite element (FE) simulations are used to study the axial collapse behavior of multi-corner. single- and multi-cell crush tubes under quasi-static and dynamic loading conditions. It is shown that the higher hardening modulus and yield stress increases the crush force and its resulting energy absorption. Moreover, the multi-cell tubes are found to have complicated collapse modes because of the geometrical complexity of the corner region unlike single-cell tubes. it was also shown that the stress wave propagation has a significant effect on the formation of crush modes in the tubes without imperfections whereas this effect can be ignored in tubes with imperfection or trigger mechanism. An analytical formula for the prediction of mean crush force of multi-corner multi-cell tubes is derived based on the super folding element theory. The analytical predictions for the mean crush force are found to be in good agreement with the FE solutions. Results also show a strong correlation between the cross-sectional geometry and the crash behavior with the method of connecting the inner to the outer walls having large influence on the energy absorption.

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The main objective of this research is to model and analyse complex electromagnetic problems by means of a new hybridised computational technique combining the frequency domain Method of Moments (MoM), Finite-Difference Time-Domain (FDTD) method and a subgridded Finite-Difference Time-Domain (SGFDTD) method. This facilitates a significant advance in the ability to predict electromagnetic absorption in inhomogeneous, anisotropic and lossy dielectric materials irradiated by geometrically intricate sources. The Method of Moments modelling employed a two-dimensional electric surface patch integral formulation solved by independent linear basis function methods in the circumferential and axial directions of the antenna wires. A similar orthogonal basis function is used on the end surface and appropriate attachments with the wire surface are employed to satisfy the requirements of current continuity. The surface current distributions on structures which may include closely spaced parallel wires, such as dipoles, loops and helical antennas are computed. The results are found to be stable and showed good agreement with less comprehensive earlier work by others. The work also investigated the interaction between overhead high voltage transmission lines and underground utility pipelines using the FDTD technique for the whole structure, combined with a subgridding method at points of interest, particularly the pipeline. The induced fields above the pipeline are investigated and analysed. FDTD is based on the solution of Maxwell's equations in differential form. It is very useful for modelling complex, inhomogeneous structures. Problems arise when open-region geometries are modelled. However, the Perfectly Matched Layer (PML) concept has been employed to circumvent this difficulty. The establishment of edge elements has greatly improved the performance of this method and the computational burden due to huge numbers of time steps, in the order of tens of millions, has been eased to tens of thousands by employing quasi-static methods. This thesis also illustrates the principle of the equivalent surface boundary employed close to the antenna for MoM-FDTD-SGFDTD hybridisation. It depicts the advantage of using hybrid techniques due to their ability to analyse a system of multiple discrete regions by employing the principle of equivalent sources to excite the coupling surfaces. The method has been applied for modelling human body interaction with a short range RFID antenna to investigate and analyse the near field and far field radiation pattern for which the cumulative distribution function of antenna radiation efficiency is presented. The field distributions of the simulated structures show reasonable and stable results at 900 MHz. This method facilitates deeper investigation of the phenomena in the interaction between electromagnetic fields and human tissues.

There is an increasing need for accurate models describing the electrical behaviour of individual biological cells exposed to electromagnetic fields. In this area of solving linear problem, the most frequently used technique for computing the EM field is the Finite-Difference Time-Domain (FDTD) method. When modelling objects that are small compared with the wavelength, for example biological cells at radio frequencies, the standard Finite-Difference Time-Domain (FDTD) method requires extremely small time-step sizes, which may lead to excessive computation times. The problem can be overcome by implementing a quasi-static approximate version of FDTD, based on transferring the working frequency to a higher frequency and scaling back to the frequency of interest after the field has been computed. An approach to modeling and analysis of biological cells, incorporating the Hodgkin and Huxley membrane model, is presented here. Since the external medium of the biological cell is lossy material, a modified Berenger absorbing boundary condition is used to truncate the computation grid. Linear assemblages of cells are investigated and then Floquet periodic boundary conditions are imposed to imitate the effect of periodic replication of the assemblages. Thus, the analysis of a large structure of cells is made more computationally efficient than the modeling of the entire structure. The total fields of the simulated structures are shown to give reasonable and stable results at 900MHz, 1800MHz and 2450MHz. This method will facilitate deeper investigation of the phenomena in the interaction between EM fields and biological systems. Moreover, the nonlinear response of biological cell exposed to a 0.9GHz signal was discussed on observing the second harmonic at 1.8GHz. In this, an electrical circuit model has been proposed to calibrate the performance of nonlinear RF energy conversion inside a high quality factor resonant cavity with known nonlinear device. Meanwhile, the first and second harmonic responses of the cavity due to the loading of the cavity with the lossy material will also be demonstrated. The results from proposed mathematical model, give good indication of the input power required to detect the weakly effects of the second harmonic signal prior to perform the measurement. Hence, this proposed mathematical model will assist to determine how sensitivity of the second harmonic signal can be detected by placing the required specific input power.

L’élastographie est une technique d’imagerie qui vise à cartographier in vivo les propriétés mécaniques des tissus biologiques dans le but de fournir des informations diagnostiques additionnelles. Depuis son introduction en imagerie ultrasonore dans les années 1990, l’élastographie a trouvé de nombreuses applications. Cette modalité a notamment été utilisée pour l’étude du sein, du foie, de la prostate et des artères par imagerie ultrasonore, par résonance magnétique ou en tomographie par cohérence optique. Dans le contexte des maladies cardiovasculaires, cette modalité a un fort potentiel diagnostique puisque l’athérosclérose modifie la structure des tissus biologiques et leurs propriétés mécaniques bien avant l’apparition de tout symptôme. Quelle que soit la modalité d’imagerie utilisée, l’élastographie repose sur : l’excitation mécanique du tissu (statique ou dynamique), la mesure de déplacements et de déformations induites, et l’inversion qui permet de recouvrir les propriétés mécaniques des tissus sous-jacents. Cette thèse présente un ensemble de travaux d’élastographie dédiés à l’évaluation des tissus de l’appareil cardiovasculaire. Elle est scindée en deux parties. La première partie intitulée « Élastographie vasculaire » s’intéresse aux pathologies affectant les artères périphériques. La seconde, intitulée « Élastographie cardiaque », s’adresse aux pathologies du muscle cardiaque. Dans le contexte vasculaire, l’athérosclérose modifie la physiologie de la paroi artérielle et, de ce fait, ses propriétés biomécaniques. La première partie de cette thèse a pour objectif principal le développement d’un outil de segmentation et de caractérisation mécanique des composantes tissulaires (coeur lipidique, tissus fibreux et inclusions calciques) de la paroi artérielle, en imagerie ultrasonore non invasive, afin de prédire la vulnérabilité des plaques. Dans une première étude (Chapitre 5), nous présentons un nouvel estimateur de déformations, associé à de l’imagerie ultrarapide par ondes planes. Cette nouvelle méthode d’imagerie permet d’augmenter les performances de l’élastographie non invasive. Dans la continuité de cette étude, on propose une nouvelle méthode d’inversion mécanique dédiée à l’identification et à la quantification des propriétés mécaniques des tissus de la paroi (Chapitre 6). Ces deux méthodes sont validées in silico et in vitro sur des fantômes d’artères en polymère. Dans le contexte cardiaque, les ischémies et les infarctus causés par l’athérosclérose altèrent la contractilité du myocarde et, de ce fait, sa capacité à pomper le sang dans le corps (fonction myocardique). En échocardiographie conventionnelle, on évalue généralement la fonction myocardique en analysant la dynamique des mouvements ventriculaires (vitesses et déformations du myocarde). L’abscence de contraintes physiologiques agissant sur le myocarde (contrairement à la pression sanguine qui contraint la paroi vasculaire) ne permet pas de résoudre le problème inverse et de retrouver les propriétés mécaniques du tissu. Le terme d’élastographie fait donc ici référence à l’évaluation de la dynamique des mouvements et des déformations et non à l’évaluation des propriétés mécanique du tissu. La seconde partie de cette thèse a pour principal objectif le développement de nouveaux outils d’imagerie ultrarapide permettant une meilleure évaluation de la dynamique du myocarde. Dans une première étude (Chapitre 7), nous proposons une nouvelle approche d’échocardiographie ultrarapide et de haute résolution, par ondes divergentes, couplée à de l'imagerie Doppler tissulaire. Cette combinaison, validée in vitro et in vivo, permet d’optimiser le contraste des images mode B ainsi que l’estimation des vitesses Doppler tissulaires. Dans la continuité de cette première étude, nous proposons une nouvelle méthode d’imagerie des vecteurs de vitesses tissulaires (Chapitre 8). Cette approche, validée in vitro et in vivo, associe les informations de vitesses Doppler tissulaires et le mode B ultrarapide de l’étude précédente pour estimer l’ensemble du champ des vitesses 2D à l’intérieur du myocarde. / Elastography is an imaging technique that aims to map the in vivo mechanical properties of biological tissues in order to provide additional diagnostic information. Since its introduction in ultrasound imaging in the 1990s, elastography has found many applications. This method has been used for the study of the breast, liver, prostate and arteries by ultrasound imaging, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) or optical coherence tomography (OCT). In the context of cardiovascular diseases (CVD), this modality has a high diagnostic potential as atherosclerosis, a common pathology causing cardiovascular diseases, changes the structure of biological tissues and their mechanical properties well before any symptoms appear. Whatever the imaging modality, elastography is based on: the mechanical excitation of the tissue (static or dynamic), the measurement of induced displacements and strains, and the inverse problem allowing the quantification of the mechanical properties of underlying tissues. This thesis presents a series of works in elastography for the evaluation of cardiovascular tissues. It is divided into two parts. The first part, entitled « Vascular elastography » focuses on diseases affecting peripheral arteries. The second, entitled « Cardiac elastography » targets heart muscle pathologies. In the vascular context, atherosclerosis changes the physiology of the arterial wall and thereby its biomechanical properties. The main objective of the first part of this thesis is to develop a tool that enables the segmentation and the mechanical characterization of tissues (necrotic core, fibrous tissues and calcium inclusions) in the vascular wall of the peripheral arteries, to predict the vulnerability of plaques. In a first study (Chapter 5), we propose a new strain estimator, associated with ultrafast plane wave imaging. This new imaging technique can increase the performance of the noninvasive elastography. Building on this first study, we propose a new inverse problem method dedicated to the identification and quantification of the mechanical properties of the vascular wall tissues (Chapter 6). These two methods are validated in silico and in vitro on polymer phantom mimicking arteries. In the cardiac context, myocardial infarctions and ischemia caused by atherosclerosis alter myocardial contractility. In conventional echocardiography, the myocardial function is generally evaluated by analyzing the dynamics of ventricular motions (myocardial velocities and deformations). The abscence of physiological stress acting on the myocardium (as opposed to the blood pressure which acts the vascular wall) do not allow the solving the inverse problem and to find the mechanical properties of the fabric. Elastography thus here refers to the assessment of motion dynamics and deformations and not to the evaluation of mechanical properties of the tissue. The main objective of the second part of this thesis is to develop new ultrafast imaging tools for a better evaluation of the myocardial dynamics. In a first study (Chapter 7), we propose a new approach for ultrafast and high-resolution echocardiography using diverging waves and tissue Doppler. This combination, validated in vitro and in vivo, optimize the contrast in B-mode images and the estimation of myocardial velocities with tissue Doppler. Building on this study, we propose a new velocity vector imaging method (Chapter 8). This approach combines tissue Doppler and ultrafast B-mode of the previous study to estimate 2D velocity fields within the myocardium. This original method was validated in vitro and in vivo on six healthy volunteers.

Wooden objects have been widely used in the history of humanity and play an important role in our cultural heritage. The preservation of such objects is of great importance and can be a challenging task. This thesis investigates the static and time-dependent mechanical behaviour of archaeological oak wood from the Vasa warship. Characterisation of mechanical properties is necessary for the formulation of a numerical model to design an improved support structure. The ship was impregnated with polyethylene glycol (PEG) for dimensional stabilisation. All elastic engineering constants of the Vasa oak have been identified and compared with those of recent oak by means of the static and dynamic testing. The experiments were done on samples with cubic geometry, which allowed obtaining all elastic constants from a single sample. The usage of cubic samples with orthotropic mechanical properties during compressive experiments was validated with finite-element simulations. The Young's moduli of the Vasa oak in all orthotropic directions were smaller than those for the recent oak. The shear moduli of Vasa oak was determined and verified with the resonant ultrasound spectroscopy. The time-dependent mechanical behaviour of the Vasa oak has been studied. Creep studies were performed in uniaxial compression on the cubic samples in all orthotropic directions. The samples loaded in the longitudinal direction were subjected to different stress levels. A stress level below 15% of the yield stress in the longitudinal direction did not result in non-linear creep with increasing creep rates within the time frame of the tests. The results of the studies in radial and tangential directions showed that creep was dominated by the effect of annual fluctuations in relative humidity and temperature. The weight changes based on annual fluctuations of relative humidity were measured for Vasa oak and recent oak. The Vasa oak showed higher variations due to an increased hygroscopicity which is the result of the impregnation with PEG. In conceiving a full-scale finite-element model of Vasa ship, not only the stress-strain relations of the material but also those of the structural joints are needed. Since the in-situ measurement of joints is not an option, a replica of a section of the ship hull was built and tested mechanically. The load-induced displacements were measured using 3D laser scanning which proved to have advantages to conventional point displacement measurements. The mechanical characteristics of the Vasa oak and joint information presented in this work can be used as input for a finite-element model of the Vasa ship for simulation of static and time-dependent behaviour on a larger scale. / Stötta Vasa