The role of the queen in wax secretion and comb building was studied in the the Cape honeybee, Apis mellifera capensis (Escholtz). The percentage of bees bearing wax and the amount of wax borne by these bees did not differ between the experiments. This meant that the queenless and queenright colonies had the potential to construct equal amounts of comb as the amounts of wax available for comb building was the same. Contrary to this prediction, queenright colonies constructed 8 times more comb than their queenless counterparts. Queenright Apis mellifera scutellata colonies constructed 4 times more comb than their queenless counterparts. The increased amount of 9-oxo-2-decanoic acid (90DA) in the A.m.capensis mandibular gland secretions could not alone account for this difference. In fact, A.m.capensis and A.m.scutellata colonies constructed similar amounts of comb when they were given their own queens or queens from the other race. Worker bees need to have direct contact with their queen for comb building to be enhanced. Even when the queen had her mandibular glands extirpated and tergite glands occluded large amounts of comb were constructed than when access to the queen was limited. Direct access to the head of a mated queen proved to be the stimulus enhancing comb building. No comb was constructed when the workers had access to the abdomen of the queen. Virgin queens did not stimulate comb building. The relatively large amounts of 90DA and 9HDA from the mandibular glands of Cape virgin queens had not influenced comb building. Worker sized cells were generally constructed. These cells were slightly smaller than those constructed by European honeybees, but were indicative of African bees. A few queen less colonies constructed cells that were of an intermediate drone and worker size. Four mandibular gland pneromones were measured by gas chromatography. No correlations between these pheromones and the comb construction measurements were found. It is unlikely that the mandibular gland pheromones are the only pheromones that stimulate comb building. Pheromones from other glands on the head may contribute towards the enhancement of comb building, and they are not present in virgin queens

In a honeybee colony, the loss of a queen is considered to be a serious occurrence and, if a new queen is not produced, ultimately doomed. However, in colonies of Apis mellifera capensis (Cape honeybees), numerous pathways are available for a colony which unexpectedly losses a queen. At the onset of this experiment, four colonies of A. m. capensis were dequeened. Following this photographs of all brood frames in each colony were taken and the contents of the cells analysed. Cells were chosen at random but once selected were repeatedly analysed for the duration of the experiment. The contents of a total of 44 888 individual cells were analysed. Any queen cells constructed during the sampling period were removed, maintaining a queenless state. In each colony, as predicted, the removal of the queen evoked a variety of responses in an attempt to rectify the sudden loss. However, ultimately three of the four colonies absconded, leaving little by way of stores. Three of the four colonies initially attempted to rear a new queen while one colony was immediately invaded by a presumed foreign queen and hence any attempt at queen cell construction ceased. An increased number of queen cells in the swarm position were recorded in all colonies. The invasion of a colony by a foreign queen was considered to be a new pathway available for queenless colonies of A.m capensis. Worker policing and suspected brood cannibalism was prevalent in all sampled colonies yet in addition, the transfer of eggs and larvae from cell to cell was also observed which may have increased the suspected cases of policing and cannibalism. It was unclear whether an egg or larva had been consumed or simply moved to another cell on the brood frame. All colonies contained eggs from laying workers to varying degrees, based on the length of each individual sampling period which varied between colonies due to differences in absconding dates. A steady breakdown in the effectiveness of the division of labour amongst the worker bees was observed in each of the colonies highlighting the vital role of a queen. This breakdown was clearly seen in the reduction in general housekeeping within a colony. An increase in stores indicated a possible increase in the number of forager bees, thereby reducing the number of worker bees available for other duties. Pathways available to broodright colonies and strategies used following sudden queen loss are discussed.

Natürliche Selektion bevorzugt effiziente Zusammenarbeit innerhalb von eusozialen Kolonien. Dennoch kann bei polyandrischen Arten die Aufzucht von Königinnen Konflikte auslösen. Es wird vermutet, dass Honigbienen nepotistisch bei der Königinnenaufzucht agieren. Bienen sind in der Lage zwischen verschiedenen verwandten Individuen zu unterscheiden. Die bisher publizierten Daten sind aber widersprüchlich. In meiner Untersuchung zeigte sich, dass standardisiert aufgezogene Larven durch verwandte Arbeitsbienen nicht signifikant bevorzugt werden, aber dass ein höheres Gewicht der Eier, aus denen die Larven geschlüpft sind, ihre Chancen als Königin aufgezogen zu werden signifikant erhöhen. Ein hohes Eigewicht führte außerdem zu einer zwar nicht signifikanten, aber tendenziellen Erhöhung von Fitness Eigenschaften der resultierenden Königinnen. Probleme, Nepotismus eindeutig zu belegen, sind möglicherweise dadurch verursacht, dass die Verwandtschafts-Präferenz bestimmter Individuen nicht in eine Kolonie-Entscheidung überführt werden kann. Ich habe deshalb – mit molekulargenetischen Methoden – die Verwandtschaft der Larven, die als Königinnen aufgezogen werden sollen, mit jener der Pflege-Bienen, die deren Aufzucht initiierten, vergliechen. In fünf Kolonien, deren Königinnen mit jeweils drei Drohnen von drei verschiedenen Herkünften besamt wurden, fand ich keine Präferenz von Arbeitsbienen für ihre nah-verwandten Geschwister. Dafür zeigten sich signifikante Unterschiede bezüglich Präferenz für Larven der drei Drohnen-Herkünfte. Dies kann so interpretiert werden, dass Honigbienen in der Lage sind, zwischen genetischen Varianten zu unterscheiden, aber dass diese Fähigkeit nicht für Nepotismus genutzt wird. In einem natürlichen, durch Mehrfachpaarung genetisch variablen, aber mindestens zu 25 % verwandten Volk, ist eine genetisch oder umwelt- (maternal) induzierte Attraktivität, und nicht der Grad der Verwandtschaft, das zentrale Selektionskriterium in. / Natural selection favours an efficient cooperation within eusocial colonies. However, in polyandrous species, queen rearing may provide some conflict. Worker bees are assumed to play a nepotistic role during the queen-rearing phase by preferring more closely related larvae. Honeybee workers were found to be able to discriminate between different related individuals, but published data are inconsistent. Here in my study I show that larvae reared on a standardized basis were not significantly preferred by related worker bees, but that a higher egg weight – from which the larvae originated – significantly increased the chance to receive a royalty treatment and showed a tendency to correlate positively with fitness traits of the resulting queen. Queen rearing results from a colony decision, and this involves many workers. Consequently any lack of a nepotism which is proved may be due to the fact that relatedness-driven kin preference of individuals cannot be applied to a colony decision. In view of this, using DNA fingerprinting, I also tested the relatedness of larvae to be reared as queens and those nursing worker bees which initiated the queen−rearing process. In five colonies, each inseminated with three drones from three different origins, I did not observe any preference of worker bees for their closely related sib for queen rearing, but I did find significant differences with respect to the preference of worker bees for larvae from the three drone origins. Our data provide evidence that honey bees have the ability to discriminate genetic differences, but they do not use it for nepotism. In a natural, diverse – but always at least 25%-related – framework within a colony, genetically or environmentally driven attractiveness but not relatedness represents the key criteria for selecting larvae for gyne production.