O presente trabalho tratou do estudo dos riscos apresentados pelos radioisótopos após serem submetidos aos efeitos da detonação de um artefato explosivo. O estudo permitiu a obtenção de dados baseados em pesquisas bibliográficas, documentais, cálculos e softwares, possibilitando análises das consequências resultantes de artefatos explosivos contendo radioisótopos. O objetivo deste trabalho foi a obtenção de conhecimentos quanto à potencialidade destrutiva do explosivo denominado emulsão, composto principalmente por nitrato de amônia, bem como das propriedades do cobalto, iodo e do irídio que farão parte da carga destes explosivos. Supomos que à emulsão fossem acrescentadas as atividades de 1,5.102 TBq de cobalto-60, 3,7.10-3 TBq de iodo-131 e 3,7 TBq de irídio-192 que são suas atividades representativas em radioterapia, medicina nuclear e gamagrafia respectivamente. Avaliamos a progressão da pluma radioativa a partir do epicentro da explosão, possibilitando análises dos valores das doses, da distribuição e do alcance, a partir do epicentro, dos radioisótopos estudados. A simulação da progressão da pluma radioativa foi realizada por cálculos e simulação computacional fazendo uso dos programas Blast/FX Explosive Effects Analysis Software e The HotSpot Health Physics Codes - Version 2.07.2. No trabalho só foram estudadas as doses resultantes da exposição externa considerando que todo material radioativo volatizou. Foi deixado para estudos futuros calcular as doses internas e no pulmão bem como as doses resultantes de estilhaços radioativos produzidos na explosão. / This job devotes to the study of the radioisotopes risks, after the effects of an explosion of an explosive device. This study developes data based on bibliographies, documents, calculation and also software, and as a result, could provide analysis of an explosive device blast with radioisotopes. The purpose of this work is to provide knowlegde about the potencial destructive result of a blast of an explosive called emulsion, made with ammonia nitrate, and also with cobalt properties, iodine and iridium of a explosive charge. To this emulsion were added activities of 1,5.102 TBq of Cobalt-60, 3,7.10-3 TBq of iodine-131 and 3,7 TBq of iridium-192. Such activities are seen in radioterapy, nuclear medicine and gamagraphy. It could consider the radioative plume progress from the blast epicenter, in order to analyse the value of the dose, the distribution and the distance from the epicenter of the radioisotope studied. The simulation of the radioative plume progress was made with calculation and computer software, such as Blast/FX Explosive effects analysis software and The Hotspot health physics Codes version 2.07.2. In this study was only possible to check the doses from the external effects, to consider the fact that all radioative material result in volatization. It´s important to say that we left for future studies the calculation of the internal doses and inside the lung, and also the doses of the radioative shrapnel from the blast.

La prévention des effets biologiques radio-induits en radiologie interventionnelle nécessite une estimation complète de l’exposition à la peau et aux organes du patient. Dans ce contexte, un logiciel permettant une reconstruction post-opératoire précise et rapide de la dosimétrie du patient par méthode Monte Carlo, a été développé. L’utilisation de techniques de réduction de variance et de navigation voxélisée avancées permet une amélioration significative du temps de calcul. Des fantômes anthropomorphes de dernière génération, couplés à la lecture des paramètres d’irradiation, permettent une prise en compte réaliste de l’anatomie du patient et de la géométrie de la machine. La précision de la modélisation Monte Carlo associée à un temps d’exécution réduit ainsi qu’à une complète automatisation rend cet outil particulièrement adapté à un calcul systématique en radiologie interventionnelle. / The prevention of the radio-induced biological effects in interventional radiology require a complete estimation of the patient skin and organs exposition. In this context, a software allowing a precise and fast postoperative reconstruction of the patient’s dosimetry using the Monte Carlo method was developed. The use of advanced methods of variance reduction and voxelized navigation allows a significant improvement in computing time. Last generation anthropomorphic phantoms, coupled with the reading of the irradiation parameters, allow to take realistic account of the patient's anatomy and the geometry of the machine. The precision of the Monte Carlo modelization associated with a reduced execution time as well as a complete automation makes this tool particularly suitable for a systematic calculation in interventional radiology.

As doses resultantes da contaminação ambiental por radônio e seus filhos em residências geram discussões entre pesquisadores sobre os reais danos biológicos que elas possam causar. De um lado as agências de proteção radiológica adotam o modelo proposto por vários pesquisadores de que qualquer dose, por menor que seja, pode produzir dano. Por outro lado, outros cientistas acham desnecessárias medidas restritivas pois os danos biológicos só seriam prováveis para doses bem mais altas que aquelas ocasionadas em exposições residenciais. Independente da relação entre dose e efeito, a disponibilidade de dados sobre concentrações em residências serve de base para que estudos epidemiológicos possam ser realizados, e uma melhor análise dos efeitos biológicos de baixas doses se efetive. O objetivo deste trabalho é contribuir para a dosimetria de radônio e filhos através da determinação da concentração média de radônio e dos filhos alfa emissores em residências da cidade de São Paulo. Foram efetuadas medidas separadas da concentração de 222Rn e da concentração total de emissores alfa no ar, também foram realizadas estimativas da dose gama durante o estudo. Com as concentrações medidas foi possível a estimativa da concentração de filhos de radônio (218Po e 214Po), os elementos que mais contribuem para a dose no corpo humano. Para a realização deste trabalho foram utilizados monitores passivos de 222Rn com detectores plásticos LR115 e CR39, e detectores termoluminescentes. Três métodos diferentes de medida da concentração em separado de 222Rn foram testados, sendo dois com LR115 e um com CR39. Os detectores plásticos foram analisados em um sistema semi-automático de análise de imagens. Foram realizadas duas exposições de aproximadamente seis meses (em 2003 e 2004) em residências da cidade São Paulo e um total de 170 residências foi monitorado. A média geométrica da concentração de 222Rn obtida na cidade foi 25 Bq.m-3. Valores entre 11 e 109 Bq.m-3 foram encontrados. O resultado verificado na cidade de São Paulo é menor que a média mundial, é aproximadamente 1/3 da concentração média encontrada na Europa e, é comparável a outros valores na América do Sul. Foi feita uma análise das concentrações obtidas de acordo com as características das residências e posição geográfica na cidade. Os resultados apontam que locais com maior ventilação, mais afastadas do solo e com piso de carpete ou madeira apresentam menores níveis de contaminação ambiental. Por outro lado, menor taxa de ventilação, localização em andares térreos e pisos de cimento ou cerâmica contribuem para o aumento das concentrações. Houve pequena variação das concentrações com relação à posição geográfica na cidade, sendo que as maiores concentrações foram encontradas no extremo sul da cidade nos distritos de Parelheiros e Grajaú. Não foi encontrada correlação entre a concentração total de emissores alfa e a taxa de dose gama. A média geométrica da concentração de filhos de radônio no ar resultou em 77 Bq.m-3. O valor encontrado para a contribuição dos filhos de radônio na concentração total de emissores alfa é muito significativo, aproximadamente 70% do total, maior que o verificado em estudo similar. Também não foi encontrada forte correlação entre a concentração de 222Rn e a de filhos no ar, o que indica a necessidade da determinação das duas componentes para uma dosimetria mais adequada. / There are several discussions among scientists about the actual biological effects that doses due to radon and progeny contamination in residences can cause. Radiation rotection agencies adopted the model proposed by various scientists, that any dose, with no threshold, might produce biological damage. On the other hand, other scientists believe that very restrict laws are excessive, because damages would be possible only for doses higher than those received in dwellings. Regardless of the dose-effect relation, data about radon concentration in residences are important and are a base for epidemiological studies that improve the knowledge about biological effects of low doses. The aim of this work is to contribute to radon and daughters dosimetry by the assessment of radon and progeny (alpha emitters) concentration in dwellings of the city of São Paulo. Radon concentration was measured separately from total alpha emission concentration in air. Also, gamma doses were evaluated during this study. With the measured concentrations it was possible to estimate the concentration of radon progeny (218Po and 214Po), the radionuclides which most contribute to the human dose. Monitoring was carried out using time-integrated passive 222Rn monitors with LR115 and CR39 plastic detectors, and thermoluminescent detectors. Three methods of radon concentration measurements were tested, two based on LR115 and the third with CR39. Plastic detectors were analyzed with a semi-automatic image analysis system. Two exposures were made during approximately six months (in 2003 and 2004) in dwellings in the city of São Paulo. 170 residences were monitored. Results show a geometric mean of 25 Bq.m-3 for 222Rn concentration. Values ranged from 11 to 109 Bq.m-3. The result is lower than the world average, it is approximately 1/3 of the average concentration in the Europe, and it is comparable to other results in South America. An analysis of radon and progeny concentrations in relation to residence characteristics and geographic position was made. Results point that places with good ventilation, second floor constructions and carpet or wood floor covering present lower concentrations. On the other hand, low ventilation rate, ground floor construction, and cement or ceramics covering contribute to higher radon and progeny concentration. There was low variation of levels with the geographic position in the city, and the higher concentrations were found in the south of the city, in Parelheiros and Grajaú districts. No correlation was found between total alpha emission concentration and gamma dose rate. Results of progeny concentration in the air show geometric mean of 77 Bq.m-3. The contribution of radon daughters to the total alpha emission oncentration is very significant, approximately 70%, higher than the value found in a similar work. No strong correlation was found between 222Rn concentration and progeny concentration in the air, indicating that the determination of both the concentrations is necessary for a more adequate dosimetry.

As doses resultantes da contaminação ambiental por radônio e seus filhos em residências geram discussões entre pesquisadores sobre os reais danos biológicos que elas possam causar. De um lado as agências de proteção radiológica adotam o modelo proposto por vários pesquisadores de que qualquer dose, por menor que seja, pode produzir dano. Por outro lado, outros cientistas acham desnecessárias medidas restritivas pois os danos biológicos só seriam prováveis para doses bem mais altas que aquelas ocasionadas em exposições residenciais. Independente da relação entre dose e efeito, a disponibilidade de dados sobre concentrações em residências serve de base para que estudos epidemiológicos possam ser realizados, e uma melhor análise dos efeitos biológicos de baixas doses se efetive. O objetivo deste trabalho é contribuir para a dosimetria de radônio e filhos através da determinação da concentração média de radônio e dos filhos alfa emissores em residências da cidade de São Paulo. Foram efetuadas medidas separadas da concentração de 222Rn e da concentração total de emissores alfa no ar, também foram realizadas estimativas da dose gama durante o estudo. Com as concentrações medidas foi possível a estimativa da concentração de filhos de radônio (218Po e 214Po), os elementos que mais contribuem para a dose no corpo humano. Para a realização deste trabalho foram utilizados monitores passivos de 222Rn com detectores plásticos LR115 e CR39, e detectores termoluminescentes. Três métodos diferentes de medida da concentração em separado de 222Rn foram testados, sendo dois com LR115 e um com CR39. Os detectores plásticos foram analisados em um sistema semi-automático de análise de imagens. Foram realizadas duas exposições de aproximadamente seis meses (em 2003 e 2004) em residências da cidade São Paulo e um total de 170 residências foi monitorado. A média geométrica da concentração de 222Rn obtida na cidade foi 25 Bq.m-3. Valores entre 11 e 109 Bq.m-3 foram encontrados. O resultado verificado na cidade de São Paulo é menor que a média mundial, é aproximadamente 1/3 da concentração média encontrada na Europa e, é comparável a outros valores na América do Sul. Foi feita uma análise das concentrações obtidas de acordo com as características das residências e posição geográfica na cidade. Os resultados apontam que locais com maior ventilação, mais afastadas do solo e com piso de carpete ou madeira apresentam menores níveis de contaminação ambiental. Por outro lado, menor taxa de ventilação, localização em andares térreos e pisos de cimento ou cerâmica contribuem para o aumento das concentrações. Houve pequena variação das concentrações com relação à posição geográfica na cidade, sendo que as maiores concentrações foram encontradas no extremo sul da cidade nos distritos de Parelheiros e Grajaú. Não foi encontrada correlação entre a concentração total de emissores alfa e a taxa de dose gama. A média geométrica da concentração de filhos de radônio no ar resultou em 77 Bq.m-3. O valor encontrado para a contribuição dos filhos de radônio na concentração total de emissores alfa é muito significativo, aproximadamente 70% do total, maior que o verificado em estudo similar. Também não foi encontrada forte correlação entre a concentração de 222Rn e a de filhos no ar, o que indica a necessidade da determinação das duas componentes para uma dosimetria mais adequada. / There are several discussions among scientists about the actual biological effects that doses due to radon and progeny contamination in residences can cause. Radiation rotection agencies adopted the model proposed by various scientists, that any dose, with no threshold, might produce biological damage. On the other hand, other scientists believe that very restrict laws are excessive, because damages would be possible only for doses higher than those received in dwellings. Regardless of the dose-effect relation, data about radon concentration in residences are important and are a base for epidemiological studies that improve the knowledge about biological effects of low doses. The aim of this work is to contribute to radon and daughters dosimetry by the assessment of radon and progeny (alpha emitters) concentration in dwellings of the city of São Paulo. Radon concentration was measured separately from total alpha emission concentration in air. Also, gamma doses were evaluated during this study. With the measured concentrations it was possible to estimate the concentration of radon progeny (218Po and 214Po), the radionuclides which most contribute to the human dose. Monitoring was carried out using time-integrated passive 222Rn monitors with LR115 and CR39 plastic detectors, and thermoluminescent detectors. Three methods of radon concentration measurements were tested, two based on LR115 and the third with CR39. Plastic detectors were analyzed with a semi-automatic image analysis system. Two exposures were made during approximately six months (in 2003 and 2004) in dwellings in the city of São Paulo. 170 residences were monitored. Results show a geometric mean of 25 Bq.m-3 for 222Rn concentration. Values ranged from 11 to 109 Bq.m-3. The result is lower than the world average, it is approximately 1/3 of the average concentration in the Europe, and it is comparable to other results in South America. An analysis of radon and progeny concentrations in relation to residence characteristics and geographic position was made. Results point that places with good ventilation, second floor constructions and carpet or wood floor covering present lower concentrations. On the other hand, low ventilation rate, ground floor construction, and cement or ceramics covering contribute to higher radon and progeny concentration. There was low variation of levels with the geographic position in the city, and the higher concentrations were found in the south of the city, in Parelheiros and Grajaú districts. No correlation was found between total alpha emission concentration and gamma dose rate. Results of progeny concentration in the air show geometric mean of 77 Bq.m-3. The contribution of radon daughters to the total alpha emission oncentration is very significant, approximately 70%, higher than the value found in a similar work. No strong correlation was found between 222Rn concentration and progeny concentration in the air, indicating that the determination of both the concentrations is necessary for a more adequate dosimetry.

Dans le contexte de la radio-protection de l'homme et de l'environnement, la bonne estimation du devenir d'une contamination d'aérosols au sein d'un couvert végétal et de son transfert éventuel aux espèces animales (dont l'homme par voie trophique) dépend d'emblée de la qualité de la prévision des dépôts aériens. En l'absence de précipitations, l'évaluation de l'importance des dépôts, dits secs, est incertaine, notamment ceux des particules fines sur les couverts rugueux, pour lesquels des écarts subsistent entre les résultats expérimentaux et des modèles de la littérature.<br />L'objectif de cette étude est d'améliorer la modélisation du dépôt sec d'aérosols sur les couverts végétaux. Cette amélioration passe par une description plus fine de la captation des aérosols par la végétation. Cela requiert une caractérisation des surfaces sur lesquelles le dépôt est réalisé (en termes de forme, d'orientation et de répartition spatiale) ainsi que des grandeurs aérodynamiques de l'écoulement porteur. Les mécanismes de dépôt pris en compte sont la diffusion brownienne, l'impaction inertielle, l'impaction turbulente, la sédimentation et l'interception. L'approche proposée s'appuie sur la description mécanique des dépôts sur chaque élément foliaire, la captation à une échelle supérieure d'organisation (rameau ou couvert) étant déduite par l'introduction d'une méthode statistique. Cette démarche est appliquée aux processus de dépôt et des expressions pratiques des taux de captation sont déduites. Le modèle est appliqué à des campagnes de mesures de la littérature, d'abord à l'échelle de rameau, puis à celle d'un couvert végétal. Dans la configuration d'un rameau de conifère, il est montré que l'ensemble des processus de dépôt est correctement pris en compte par le modèle, à l'exception de l'interception dans les conditions particulières de vitesse amont faible et de granulométrie entre 0,5 et 2 microns environ. Dans la configuration plus générale d'un couvert entier, le modèle n'est pas mis en défaut par les mesures lorsque les informations concernant le couvert et la granulométrie de l'aérosol sont accessibles. En particulier, le modèle reproduit de façon très satisfaisante les mesures de dépôt sur couvert artificiel, faiblement rugueux et collant, et ce pour des tailles de particules très variées (entre 0,1 et 20 microns environ). L'accord sur couvert d'herbes naturelles, dont les caractéristiques sont peu décrites, reste acceptable, même s'il semble que la non prise en compte du rebond par le modèle induise pour les particules les plus massives une sur-estimation du dépôt calculé. En forêt, le modèle reproduit de façon qualitativement correcte le dépôt de gouttelettes de brouillard. Dans le cas du dépôt d'un aérosol d'accumulation, la comparaison des résultats expérimentaux et de modélisation ne permet pas de conclure quant à la pertinence du modèle, la granulométrie de l'aérosol n'étant pas connue de façon assez précise. D'autres essais sont souhaitables afin d'étendre la validation du modèle sur forêt.

La spectrométrie des neutrons rapides est une technique essentielle dans plusieurs domaines notamment pour les expériences de détection d'évènements rares, telles que celles de détection directe de la matière noire, et pour les centres de recherches nucléaires. La détection des neutrons rapides se fait habituellement de manière indirecte. Les neutrons sont d'abord ralentis par des matériaux modérateurs pour être détectés ensuite dans une gamme d'énergie plus basse. Ces techniques de détection sont cependant complexes à mettre en place et sont limitées en résolution en énergie. Un nouveau type de spectrométrie de neutrons rapides a été développée à l'Institut d'Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS) dans le but d'avoir une meilleure connaissance des fonds de neutrons : il associe la technique bolométrique à des cristaux à base de lithium sensibles aux neutrons. Le lithium-6 est en effet un élément ayant une des plus grandes sections efficaces de capture neutronique avec la réaction 6Li(n,)3H. La réaction libère 4.78 MeV signant ainsi énergétiquement chaque capture de neutron et lors de l'interaction avec un neutron rapide, l'énergie totale mesurée par le bolomètre devrait être la somme de cette énergie de réaction et de l'énergie cinétique du neutron rapide incident. Afin de valider ce principe, un prototype de spectromètre à neutrons rapides, compact et semi portable, a été construit à l'IAS. Ce détecteur cryogénique, fonctionnant entre 300 et 400 mK, consiste en un cristal de 0.5 g de 6LiF enrichi à 95%, associé un thermomètre en Ge-NTD. Cette thèse a porté sur l'étude des caractéristiques de ce spectromètre, des premières mesures à l'IAS, aux mesures dans le centre de recherche de l'Institut Paul Scherrer (PSI), jusqu'au calibrage final sur l'installation Amande de l'Institut de Radioprotection et de Sûreté Nucléaire (IRSN).

Les radiations sont omniprésentes. Elles ont de nombreuses applications dans des domaines variés: en médecine, elles permettent de réaliser des diagnostiques et de guérir des patients; en communication, tous les systèmes modernes utilisent des formes de rayonnements électromagnétiques; et en science, les chercheurs les utilisent pour découvrir la composition et la structure des matériaux, pour n'en nommer que quelques-unes. Concrètement, la radiation est un processus au cours duquel des particules ou des ondes voyagent à travers différents types de matériaux. La radiation peut être très énergétique, et aller jusqu'à casser les atomes de la matière ordinaire. Dans ce cas, on parlera de radiation ionisante. Il est communément admis que la radiation ionisante peut être bien plus nocif pour les êtres vivants que la radiation non ionisante. Dans cette dissertation, nous traiterons de la radiation ionisante. La radioactivité est le processus d'émission des radiations ionisantes. Elle existe sous forme naturelle, et est présente dans les sols, dans l'air et notre planète entière est bombardée en permanence de rayonnements cosmiques énergétiques. Depuis le début du XXe siècle, les chercheurs sont capables de créer artificiellement de la matière radioactive. Cette découverte a offert de multiples avancées technologiques, mais a eu également de lourdes conséquences pour l'humanité comme l'ont démontrés les évènements de Tchernobyl et de Fukushima ou d'autres accidents dans le monde médical. Cette dangerosité a conduit à l'élaboration d'un système de radioprotection. Dans la pratique, la radioprotection est principalement mise en œuvre en utilisant la méthode ALARA. Cette méthodologie consiste à justifier, optimiser et limiter les doses reçues. Elle est utilisée conjointement avec les limites légales. Le facteur d'optimisation est contraint par le fait que l'exposition volontaire d'un travailleur aux radiations lors d'une opération doit être plus bénéfique que si aucune intervention humaine n'était conduite dans une situation donnée. Dans le monde industriel et scientifique, il existe des infrastructures qui émettent des rayonnements ionisants. La plupart d'entre elles nécessitent des opérations de maintenance. Dans l'esprit du principe ALARA, ces interventions doivent être optimisées pour réduire l'exposition des travailleurs aux rayonnements ionisants. Cette optimisation ne peut pas être réalisée de manière automatique car la faisabilité des interventions nécessite dans tous les cas une évaluation humaine. La planification des interventions peut cependant être facilitée par des moyens techniques et scientifiques comme par exemple un outil informatique. Dans le contexte décrit ci-dessus, cette thèse regroupe des considérations techniques et scientifiques, et présente la méthodologie utilisée pour développer des outils logiciels pour la mise en œuvre de la radioprotection.

Les radiations sont omniprésentes. Elles ont de nombreuses applications dans des domaines variés: en médecine, elles permettent de réaliser des diagnostiques et de guérir des patients; en communication, tous les systèmes modernes utilisent des formes de rayonnements électromagnétiques; et en science, les chercheurs les utilisent pour découvrir la composition et la structure des matériaux, pour n'en nommer que quelques-unes. Concrètement, la radiation est un processus au cours duquel des particules ou des ondes voyagent à travers différents types de matériaux. La radiation peut être très énergétique, et aller jusqu'à casser les atomes de la matière ordinaire. Dans ce cas, on parlera de radiation ionisante. Il est communément admis que la radiation ionisante peut être bien plus nocif pour les êtres vivants que la radiation non ionisante. Dans cette dissertation, nous traiterons de la radiation ionisante. La radioactivité est le processus d'émission des radiations ionisantes. Elle existe sous forme naturelle, et est présente dans les sols, dans l'air et notre planète entière est bombardée en permanence de rayonnements cosmiques énergétiques. Depuis le début du XXe siècle, les chercheurs sont capables de créer artificiellement de la matière radioactive. Cette découverte a offert de multiples avancées technologiques, mais a eu également de lourdes conséquences pour l'humanité comme l'ont démontrés les évènements de Tchernobyl et de Fukushima ou d'autres accidents dans le monde médical. Cette dangerosité a conduit à l'élaboration d'un système de radioprotection. Dans la pratique, la radioprotection est principalement mise en œuvre en utilisant la méthode ALARA. Cette méthodologie consiste à justifier, optimiser et limiter les doses reçues. Elle est utilisée conjointement avec les limites légales. Le facteur d'optimisation est contraint par le fait que l'exposition volontaire d'un travailleur aux radiations lors d'une opération doit être plus bénéfique que si aucune intervention humaine n'était conduite dans une situation donnée. Dans le monde industriel et scientifique, il existe des infrastructures qui émettent des rayonnements ionisants. La plupart d'entre elles nécessitent des opérations de maintenance. Dans l'esprit du principe ALARA, ces interventions doivent être optimisées pour réduire l'exposition des travailleurs aux rayonnements ionisants. Cette optimisation ne peut pas être réalisée de manière automatique car la faisabilité des interventions nécessite dans tous les cas une évaluation humaine. La planification des interventions peut cependant être facilitée par des moyens techniques et scientifiques comme par exemple un outil informatique. Dans le contexte décrit ci-dessus, cette thèse regroupe des considérations techniques et scientifiques, et présente la méthodologie utilisée pour développer des outils logiciels pour la mise en œuvre de la radioprotection. / Radiation is omnipresent. It has many interesting applications: in medicine, where it allows curing and diagnosing patients; in communication, where modern communication systems make use of electromagnetic radiation; and in science, where it is used to discover the structure of materials; to name a few. Physically, radiation is a process in which particles or waves travel through any kind of material, usually air. Radiation can be very energetic, in which case it can break the atoms of ordinary matter (ionization). If this is the case, radiation is called ionizing. It is known that ionizing radiation can be far more harmful to living beings than non-ionizing radiation. In this dissertation, we are concerned with ionizing radiation. Naturally occurring ionizing radiation in the form of radioactivity is a most natural phenomenon. Almost everything is radioactive: there is radiation emerging from the soil, it is in the air, and the whole planet is constantly undergoing streams of energetic cosmic radiation. Since the beginning of the twentieth century, we are also able to artificially create radio-active matter. This has opened a lot of interesting technological opportunities, but has also given a tremendous responsibility to humanity, as the nuclear accidents in Chernobyl and Fukushima, and various accidents in the medical world have made clear. This has led to the elaboration of a radiological protection system. In practice, the radiological protection system is mostly implemented using a methodology that is indicated with the acronym ALARA: As Low As Reasonably Achievable. This methodology consists of justifying, optimizing and limiting the radiation dose received. This methodology is applied in conjunction with the legal limits. The word "reasonably" means that the optimization of radiation exposure has to be seen in context. The optimization is constrained by the fact that the positive effects of an operation might surpass the negative effects caused by the radiation. Several industrial and scientific procedures give rise to facilities with ionizing radiation. Most technical and scientific facilities also need maintenance operations. In the spirit of ALARA, these interventions need to be optimized in terms of the exposure of the maintenace workers to ionizing radiation. This optimization cannot be automated since the feasibility of the intervention tasks requires human assessment. The intervention planning could however be facilitated by technical-scientific means, e.g. software tools. In the context sketched above, this thesis provides technical-scientific considerations and the development of technical-scientific methodologies and software tools for the implementation of radiation protection.In particular, this thesis addresses the need for an interactive visual intervention planning tool in the context of high energy particle accelerator facilities.

Today, the application of particle beams in cancer therapy is a well-established strategy and its combination with surgery and chemotherapy is becoming an increasingly reliable approach for some several clinical cases (e.g. skull base tumors). Currently, protons and 12C ions are used for patients’ treatment, due to their characteristic depth-dose deposition profile featuring a pronounced peak (the Bragg Peak) at the end of range. Clinical energies typically span between 60 and 250 MeV for protons and up to 400 MeV/u for 12C ions, in order to deliver treatments to various disease sites. Interactions between the primary beam and the patient’s body always occur during treatment, changing the primary radiation composition, energy and direction and thus affecting its depth dose and lateral profile. In carbon therapy, both projectile and target fragments can be generated during a treatment: the former are characterized by a kinetic energy spectrum peaked at the same energy of the primary beam and are mostly emitted in the forward direction; the latter are emitted with a much lower energy because they are produced from the target, which is at rest before the collision, and they are generated isotropically in the target frame. Moreover, the interaction of carbon ions with the patient's body is currently modeled in the treatment planning on the basis of experimental data measured in water. For all other biological materials, the contribution of nuclear interactions is taken into account by rescaling the values measured in water with a density factor. This approximation neglects the influence of the elemental composition, which might become relevant in cases where the material encountered by the beam significantly differs from water (e.g. bone or lung tissues) and result in a non-uniform and incorrect dose profile. Thus, experimental data with target different from water are clearly needed in order to correctly evaluate the contribution of all biological elements inside the human body. Treatments with protons can only generate target fragments, leading to the production of low-energy and therefore short-range fragments. Heavy secondary fragments will have a higher biological effectiveness than to protons, thus affecting the proton Relative Biological Effectiveness (RBE, i.e. the ratio of photon to charged particles dose necessary to achieve the same biological effect), nowadays assumed as a constant value (RBE=1.1) in clinical practice. Another aspect related to nuclear interactions is the overlap between radiotherapy and space radiation protection. The group of particle species either currently available in radiotherapy or considered promising alternative candidates (i.e. Helium, Lithium and Oxygen) are among the most abundant in the space radiation environment. Moreover, the proton energy range used in radiotherapy is similar to that of Solar Particle Events (SPEs) and Van Allen trapped protons. The radiation environment in space can lead to serious health risks for astronauts, especially in long duration and far from Earth space missions (like human explorations to Mars). Protection against space radiation are of paramount importance for preserving the astronauts’ life. Today, the only possible countermeasure is passive shielding. Nuclear fragmentation processes can occur inside the spaceship hull, causing the production of lighter and highly penetrating radiation that must be considered when a shielding is designed. Therefore, experimental data for beam and targets combinations relevant in space radiation applications must be collected for characterizing the interaction of mixed generated radiation field and assess the radiation-induced health risk. Despite the many fundamental open issues in particle therapy and space radiation protection fields, such the ones mentioned above, the current lack of experimental fragmentation cross section data in their energy range of interest is undeniable. Thus, accurate measurements for different ions species with energies up to 1000 MeV/u would be of great importance in order to further optimize particles treatments and improve the shielding design of spaceship. Moreover, additional experimental data would be of great importance for benchmarking Monte Carlo codes, which are extensively used by the scientific communities in both research fields. In fact, the available transport codes suffer from many uncertainties and they need to be verified with reliable experimental data. Due to high energy and long range of projectile fragments, the standard approach for their identification is collect data from several detector types, usually two plastic scintillators coupled with a Barium Fluoride or LYSO crystal, placed both upstream or downstream the target, providing information about the charge, energy loss, the residual kinetic energy and the time of flight of the emitted fragments. This experimental setup allows the identification of particle species in terms of charge, isotope, emission angle and kinetic energy and it has been widely exploited to perform several fragmentation measurements, both in particle therapy and space application fields. An example is the ROSSINI (RadiatiOn Shielding by ISRU and/or INnovative materIals for EVA, Vehicle and Habitat) project financed by the European Space Agency (ESA) to select innovative shielding materials and provide recommendations on space radioprotection for different mission scenarios. However, such standard approach is not useful for the characterization of target fragments. In fact, because of their low energy and short range, a much more complex setup and finer experimental strategies are required for their detection. The FOOT (FragmentatiOn Of Target) experiment has been designed to measure fragment production cross sections with ~5% uncertainty. Target fragmentation induced by 50-250 MeV proton beams will be studied taking advantage of an inverse kinematic approach. Specifically, O, C and He beams impinging on different targets (e.g., C, C2H4) will be employed, thus boosting the fragments energy and making their detection possible. Fragmentation cross section of hydrogen will be then obtained by subtraction. The same configuration provides also a measurement of projectile fragments with the direct kinematics approach. FOOT experimental setup consists of two different apparatus: a dedicated “table-top” electronic setup, based on a magnetic spectrometer, were conceived for the detection of heavier fragments (Z≥3). Alternatively, an emulsion spectrometer was designed in order to measure the production of low Z fragments (Z≤3) that would not cross the whole magnetic spectrometer. The purpose of the work presented in this doctoral thesis is the experimental characterization of particles originated in nuclear fragmentation processes for targets and beams of interest for particle therapy and space radiation protection, providing inputs to improve the accuracy of Monte Carlo transport codes presently used. Data collected in experimental campaigns using the standard setup to study the interaction of 400 MeV/u 12C ions beam with bone-like materials and 1000 MeV/u 58Ni ions beam with targets relevant for space applications have been analyzed. The presented fragments characterization comprehends the fraction of primary particles surviving the target and the yield and kinetic energy spectra of charged particles emitted at several angles with respect to the primary beam direction. The )*Ni beam data were collected in the frame of the ROSSINI experiment and focused on characterizing secondary neutrons production. Moreover, the analysis of the performances and fragments reconstruction capabilities of the FOOT electronic setup has been accomplished with Monte Carlo simulations. A dedicated analysis software has been developed in order to reconstruct fragments charge and mass, energy yields and production cross sections. A preliminary analysis of experimental data collected by a partial FOOT electronic setup is presented as well.

En dosimétrie, la distribution énergétique des photons émis par une source constitue un paramètre incontournable. Dans la gamme des basses et moyennes énergies (i.e. E<150 keV ici), le LNHB possède 5 tubes à rayons X ainsi que des grains de curiethérapie à l’iode 125, présentant des hauts débits de fluence. La détermination du spectre émis par calcul (déterministe ou Monte-Carlo) est limitée, dans la gamme d’énergie considérée, par les incertitudes élevées sur les bases de données ainsi que par les approximations du modèle. La mesure directe avec un détecteur au germanium ultra-pur a donc été retenue, bien que nécessitant de lourds moyens. De plus, le spectre mesuré est le produit de convolution du spectre émis recherché par la réponse du système. Une fois la réponse du détecteur modélisée, il est possible de « déconvoluer» la mesure, i.e. de remonter au spectre réellement émis en corrigeant (par stripping, model-fitting, inférence bayésienne…) les déformations spectrales induites par le processus de détection. Pour la curiethérapie, le modèle de grain-source a ainsi pu être ajusté. Pour les tubes à rayons X, les résultats obtenus avec différents codes Monte-Carlo et 4 logiciels déterministes ont été comparés à un spectre dit de référence obtenu par mesure et déconvolué. Ainsi l’impact sur certaines grandeurs dosimétriques de la méthode utilisée a pu être quantifié. / In the field of dosimetry, the knowledge of the whole photon fluence spectrum is an essential parameter. In the low-to-medium energy range (i.e. E<150 keV), the LNHB possess 5 X-ray tubes and iodine-125 brachytherapy seeds, both emitting high fluence rates. The performance of calculation (either Monte Carlo codes or deterministic software) is flawed by increasing uncertainties on fundamental parameters at low energies, and modelling issues. Therefore, direct measurement using a high purity germanium is preferred, even though it requires a time-consuming set-up and mathematical methods to infer impinging spectrum from measured ones (such as stripping, model-fitting or Bayesian inference…). Concerning brachytherapy, the knowledge of the seed’s parameters has been improved. Moreover, various calculated X-ray tube fluence spectra have been compared to measured ones, after unfolding. The results of all these methods have then be assessed, as well as their impact on dosimetric parameters.