Desertification, or land degradation in drylands, is a serious environmental problem in South Africa with tremendous socio-economic consequences. Land users' perspectives on land management practices and knowledge about their rangelands have been poorly represented in the discourse of land degradation in South Africa. We addressed this knowledge gap by examining three participatory methods to capture local knowledge and perspectives, as well as the relation between knowledge, attitude and practice status relative to three land management actions done by livestock farmers in the South African Kalahari. Photo elicitation captured a greater level of detail and new information compared to semi-structured interviews alone, while enhancing researchers' understanding of farmers' knowledge and perception in multiple ways. The photovoice group discussions led to farmers' engagement in reflective dialogues, which facilitated mutual learning among the farmers. We found that a high level of knowledge and positive attitude alone did not always result in actual full scale practice. Situational factors such as limited financial resources, inadequate farm infrastructure, farm size, and land tenure were given by farmers as constraints or challenges to their land management. We further examined how effective local knowledge and remotely sensed data were in assessing the veld condition in the Kalahari Duneveld. The farmers' assessment of veld condition corresponded to field measured grass, shrub and bare ground cover. The three vegetation metrics calculated from remotely sensed images (i.e., Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), Soil-Adjusted Vegetation Index (SAVI), and the tasseled cap greenness) all correlated poorly to the measured vegetation cover because of the excess spectral noise caused by the high iron oxide content in the Kalahari sand. Local perspectives and knowledge have potential to augment traditional ground-based rangeland assessment and contribute in the combat against desertification by offering a more holistic view of land management.

Rotational grazing is being promoted by some land managers, government agencies, and conservation groups as superior to season-long grazing for improving pasture and cattle production, and for grassland bird conservation; however, the assumed benefits have not been comprehensively studied. In 2011 and 2012, I examined the effects of twice-over rotational grazing on the nesting success of grassland songbirds in southwestern Manitoba, Canada. I monitored nesting attempts and collected structural vegetation data for five species of obligate grassland bird (n=110) and one shrub-nesting species (n=41). Nesting analyses were conducted using logistic exposure models. Twice-over grazing had a significantly negative effect on the nesting success of the ground nesting species, including Savannah sparrows (Passerculus sandwichensis). Grazing system did not have an effect on vegetation structure. The results are consistent with other rotational grazing studies, and suggest that twice-over rotational grazing does not benefit grassland songbirds in mixed-grass prairie habitats. / October 2016

abstract: Rangelands are an extensive land cover type that cover about 40% of earth’s ice-free surface, expanding into many biomes. Moreover, managing rangelands is crucial for long-term sustainability of the vital ecosystem services they provide including carbon (C) storage via soil organic carbon (SOC) and animal agriculture. Arid rangelands are particularly susceptible to dramatic shifts in vegetation cover, physical and chemical soil properties, and erosion due to grazing pressure. Many studies have documented these effects, but studies focusing on grazing impacts on soil properties, namely SOC, are less common. Furthermore, studies testing effects of different levels of grazing intensities on SOC pools and distribution yield mixed results with little alignment. The primary objective of this thesis was to have a better understanding of the role of grazing intensity on arid rangeland soil C storage. I conducted research in long established pastures in Jornada Experimental Range (JER). I established a 1500m transect in three pastures originating at water points and analyzed vegetation cover and SOC on points along these transects to see the effect of grazing on C storage on a grazing gradient. I used the line-point intercept method to measure and categorize vegetation into grass, bare, and shrub. Since soil adjacent to each of these three cover types will likely contain differing SOC content, I then used this vegetation cover data to calculate the contribution of each cover type to SOC. I found shrub cover and total vegetation cover to decrease, while grass and bare cover increased with decreasing proximity to the water source. I found areal (g/m2) and percent (go SOC to be highest in the first 200m of the transects when accounting for the contribution of the three vegetation cover types. I concluded that SOC is being redistributed toward the water source via foraging and defecation and foraging, due to a negative trend of both total vegetation cover and percent SOC (g/g). With the decreasing trends of vegetation cover and SOC further from pasture water sources, my thesis research contributes to the understanding of storage and distribution of SOC stocks in arid rangelands. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Biology 2018

abstract: The introduction of livestock to the vast majority of public lands may be used to simulate the conditions provided by herbivorous grazers in the past, however little data has been collected on the effects of livestock grazing in Sonoran desert habitats. Vegetative species that are characteristic of the Arizona Upland subdivision of the Sonoran desert did not evolve with extensive grazing by large ungulate populations, and therefore the response to livestock grazing is of particular interest. Four historic Parker 3-step clusters in south-central Arizona were sampled in three cohorts between 1953 and 2016 to interpret changes in rangeland health using soil coverage data, species richness and frequency, and long-term photo point comparisons. Cattle grazing was active across the allotment until 1984, allowing approximately 30 years of rest before the third and final cohort was measured. Over the entirety of this study, there was a 66.67% increase in perennial basal hits, a 56.29% increase in rock, and a 44.55% increase of forage basal hits. Decreases were seen in litter (-57.69%) and bare soil hits (-8.76%). Cluster 3 consistently had a lower percent of cover across all classes of vegetation in the 2014 cohort (-81.61%), however the average percent of cover increased by 63.16% (40 hits) across the allotment. Available species richness data from 1971 and 2014 cohorts indicates a 112% increase in unique species; however, species richness increases in the 2014 cohort are largely based on recruitment of non-palatable species (71%). Although the status of some species were undetermined, all individuals identified to species in the invader class (non-palatable) were determined to be native to the study site. Perennial grass frequency became less abundant over the duration of this study, while growth was predominantly observed in shrubs. Increases in species frequency was detected on two of the four clusters measured in the 2014 cohort; the growth was primarily observed in jojoba (Simmondsia chinensis), oak (Quercus spp.), and catclaw acacia (Senegalia greggii) in C4, and hopseed bush (Dodonaea viscosa) in C2. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Applied Biological Sciences 2018

Master of Science / Department of Biology / Brett K. Sandercock / Grassland birds are declining throughout their native range. The Flint Hills of eastern Kansas and Oklahoma contain large tracts of tallgrass prairie, but intensification of agricultural practices may be contributing to ongoing population declines. Common rangeland management practices include annual burning coupled with heavy grazing by cattle. This system, known as intensive early stocking and burning, promotes homogeneous utilization of forage by cattle but may not provide habitat for some grassland bird species. Patch-burn grazing is an alternative management system that aims to restore heterogeneity on rangelands by recreating the fire-grazing interaction that would have historically occurred throughout the Great Plains. From 2011-2013, we examined responses of grassland birds to traditional rangeland management and patch-burn grazing by conducting vegetation surveys, line transect surveys, and nest monitoring on privately-owned pastures in Chase County and Greenwood County, Kansas. Vegetative heterogeneity was higher on patch-burned pastures, with unburned patches having higher visual obstruction and less bare ground. Densities of grassland birds differed by species and among habitat strata. Unburned patches on patch-burned pastures were associated with increased densities of Dickcissels (Spiza americana), Eastern Meadowlarks (Sturnella magna) and Grasshopper Sparrows (Ammodramus savannarum). Henslow’s Sparrows (A. henslowii) were only detected on patch-burned pastures. Nest survival of grassland songbirds was similar among management systems but varied by year. Probability of nest parasitism by Brown-headed Cowbirds (Molothrus ater) varied among years and between treatments for Dickcissels and Grasshopper Sparrows, with overall lower rates on burned areas and during drought years. For Dickcissels and Grasshopper Sparrows, there was a significant reduction in host clutch size between parasitized versus unparasitized nests. Overall, nest survival of grassland songbirds in managed rangelands was low. Patch-burn grazing improved rangeland conditions and provided habitat for more species of birds, but did not increase nest survival. Drought conditions in 2012 and 2013 may have influenced the results of this study, as many landowners were unable to burn as planned. Further study is needed to determine underlying factors driving variation in nest success and parasitism rates for grassland birds, particularly on private lands which make up the vast majority of remnant tallgrass prairies.

Cattle grazing has been a historic use of rangelands in Utah since Pioneer settlement in the mid 1800's. Wright fishhook cactus is a small globose cactus endemic to an area of 280,000 ha in south-central Utah and was listed as endangered in October of 1979, by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). By 2010, concerns were expressed that soil compaction in proximity to the cactus posed a threat to this species, though there was no empirical data to support such concern. In order to assess the impact of cattle traffic on Wright fishhook cactus, we used an imprint device to simulate a cow track's impact. We applied a treatment of either zero, one, or four hoof imprints within 15 cm evenly of 146 cacti within the same population cluster on the same day. We monitored subsequent plant survival as well as reproductive success. Each cactus in the study was visited multiple times and all developed seed was collected. We found that cattle traffic of any amount had no effect on plant survival or seed production and therefore concluded that cattle traffic poses no threat to Wright fishhook cactus. The status of this cactus yields no justification for changing the historic land management use of cattle grazing on these rangelands. Seedbank abundance and location has not been examined for any species within the genus Sclerocactus. Over a one-day period, we took 500 soil samples from various locations near the cactus and potential nurse-plants. We found that approximately 1% of annual seed production makes it into the seedbank, a number in line with other species in the Cactaceae family. Seedbank densities were highest immediately adjacent to, and downslope from, parent plants. Understanding the dynamics of the seedbank of this species could lead to more informed management practices.

Master of Science / Department of Agronomy / Walter H. Fick / Patch-burn grazing is a relatively new concept in terms of rangeland management. While numerous benefits have been associated with this system, in the tallgrass prairie of Kansas, cattle production and sustainability of rangeland are critical. In 2006, 253 ha at the KSU Bressner Range Research Unit in Woodson County, Kansas were subjected to spring patch-burn grazing (using one-third portions) and traditional full-burn grazing. Each treatment within the split-block design was replicated four times for 3 years. The objectives were to evaluate whether livestock performance would be compromised under this grazing system, to monitor the health of the rangeland, and to observe the usefulness of this tool as a potential control of the invasive plant sericea lespedeza [Lespedeza cuneata (Dumont) G. Don]. In regards to cattle performance, burn treatments had no significant difference in average daily gain (p≥0.10) in any of the 3 years. On average, cattle utilized 61% of the current year’s forage production in patch-burned portions, which was higher (p≤0.10) than that of unburned (30%) and full-burn (41%) portions. Results of the botanical composition show forb and woody plant composition did not differ between treatments, however differences (p≤0.10) were present in grass composition. Total annual grasses increased 19.1 percentage units under patch-burn and 2.1 units under full-burn, while total perennial grasses decreased 18.4 and 1.1 units, respectively. When evaluated by treatment area (one-third portion), results indicated that the 3-year cycle did allow enough time for recovery. At 2 years after treatment (2-YAT), no significant difference in composition(p≥0.10) was present between initial patch-burn portions and the full-burn pastures. Finally, in only 1 year of the study did cattle statistically consume a greater percentage of sericea lespedeza plants (p≤0.10) in the patch-burned portions (92%) than in full-burned pastures (35%). Biomass utilization did not differ (p≥0.10) between burn treatments. Surprisingly, there was a trend for the number of plants in the sampled areas of the patch-burn portions to decrease throughout the cycle. However, at the conclusion of the 3-year cycle, sericea densities did not differ(p≥0.10) between treatments. Patch-burn grazing shows promise as a potential management tool for Kansas land managers.

abstract: Urbanization and woody plant encroachment, with subsequent brush management, are two significant land cover changes that are represented in the southwestern United States. Urban areas continue to grow, and rangelands are undergoing vegetation conversions, either purposely through various rangeland management techniques, or by accident, through inadvertent effects of climate and management. This thesis investigates how areas undergoing land cover conversions in a semiarid region, through urbanization or rangeland management, influences energy, water and carbon fluxes. Specifically, the following scientific questions are addressed: (1) what is the impact of different urban land cover types in Phoenix, AZ on energy and water fluxes?, (2) how does the land cover heterogeneity influence energy, water, and carbon fluxes in a semiarid rangeland undergoing woody plant encroachment?, and (3) what is the impact of brush management on energy, water, and carbon fluxes? The eddy covariance technique is well established to measure energy, water, and carbon fluxes and is used to quantify and compare flux measurements over different land surfaces. Results reveal that in an urban setting, paved surfaces exhibit the largest sensible and lowest latent heat fluxes in an urban environment, while a mesic landscape exhibits the largest latent heat fluxes, due to heavy irrigation. Irrigation impacts flux sensitivity to precipitation input, where latent heat fluxes increase with precipitation in xeric and parking lot landscapes, but do not impact the mesic system. In a semiarid managed rangeland, past management strategies and disturbance histories impact vegetation distribution, particularly the distribution of mesquite trees. At the site with less mesquite coverage, evapotranspiration (ET) is greater, due to greater grass cover. Both sites are generally net sinks of CO2, which is largely dependent on moisture availability, while the site with greater mesquite coverage has more respiration and generally greater gross ecosystem production (GEP). Initial impacts of brush management reveal ET and GEP decrease, due to the absence of mesquite trees. However the impact appears to be minimal by the end of the productive season. Overall, this dissertation advances the understanding of land cover change impacts on surface energy, water, and carbon fluxes in semiarid ecosystems. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Civil, Environmental and Sustainable Engineering 2017

Public rangelands are managed by a mixture of federal, state, and local governments. Often, these groups are charged with managing adjacent lands that are part of the same greater landscape. To do this effectively, communication and collaboration is required. This dissertation examines federal, state, and local agencies’ level of communication through three projects. The first project examined barriers to agencies adopting management tools from each other. I found that individuals within agencies were mainly staying within their own agency when seeking advice, so individuals were not communicating about tools or their findings across agencies. Furthermore, agency policies and fear of being sued restricted individuals’ ability to adopt management tools. The second project studied how land and wildlife managers in Southeastern Utah work together, or not, in managing mule deer populations that migrate to and from land managed by different agencies. I found that managers are working together to manage mule deer populations, but there are only a few individuals that tie everyone together. The third project looked at how federal, state, and local governments work together to rehabilitate lands after a wildfire that burned parts of Southwestern Idaho and Southeastern Oregon. I found that policy decisions at the federal level can heavily impact who works together and when. All three projects revealed that there are still barriers to federal, state, and local governments working together to manage the same landscape. However, the results from this dissertation also highlight opportunities for bridging the gap between agencies and, ultimately, improving management of rangelands.

This thesis examines how preparatory, policy and review documents of the Participatory Rangeland Management (PRM) in East Africa, problematize and represent the ‘problems’ which resulted in the design of the development program. The focus is on how these problematizations can hinder or facilitate participation, influence and empowerment of women and marginalized groups in decision-making processes. The findings are based on a gender-based policy analysis undertaken of five documents written by the NGOs involved in the planning and implementation of PRM in Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania. A conceptual framework measuring the level of participation, empowerment and influence was constructed to assess the policies and their possible outcomes. The document analysis showed that the implicit ‘problem’ themes identified appeared to be that communities were unmodern, undeveloped, and had under-representation of women and pastoralists in rangeland management. These problematizations seem to originate from a development discourse characterized by solutions focussing on ‘modernization’ and ‘technical fixes’. These pre-conceived ideas of the ’problems’ call for more communication and inclusion of community groups in problem formulation and program design. The analysis further revealed that expert-assisted and gender-mainstreaming initiatives such as the PRM could have a positive impact on the level of participation, influence, and empowerment of women. When training was carried out for both women and men by the PRM to raise awareness of women’s rights, it resulted in an increased number of women participating in activities. However, gender-mainstreaming should not stop with participation, it should be further developed towards influence and empowerment. The PRM could consider promoting a change of power relations by combining efforts to demonstrate the benefits of meaningful consultations to decision-makers and efforts to enhance the knowledge and skills of marginalized groups so that they can better engage with these decision-makers. Furthermore, there is a need to expand the discussion on how to design gender-mainstreaming policies and practices, without labelling women as one.