The mountains of Lesotho form the catchments for the Lesotho Highlands Water Project (LHWP), which is presently under construction, and their condition will determine the longevity of the LHWP. The mountain rangelands also support an extensive livestock system. However, there is concern that grazing is negatively affecting the mountain vegetation to the detriment of both livestock production and catchment function. Therefore, the impact of environment and grazing on the vegetation was investigated to aid the development of management policy for the conservation of the grazing, floristic and water resources of the mountains. Vegetation surveys were conducted in the mountains in the east (Study Area 1: 2 625 - 3 350 m a.s.l.) and in the west (Study Area 2: 2 240 - 3 125 m a.s.l.). Indirect gradient analysis (IGA) and classification were used to investigate the influence of environment on vegetation pattern. Results of the IGA indicated that variation in species composition in the mountains is related primarily to topographic variation, in particular elevation and aspect. Five vegetation communities were identified in Study Area 1 and seven in Study Area 2. These communities occurred consistently in specific topographic positions in the landscape and were arranged along a temperate/subtropical grass species continuum which was associated with a gradient in elevation and aspect. In Study Area 1, the elevation boundary between the high-lying temperate grasslands and the lower subtropical grasslands corresponded with the generally recognised boundary between the Alpine and Subalpine vegetation belts (viz. c. 2 950 m a.s.l. on northerly aspects and c. 2 750 m a.s.l. on southerly aspects). This boundary was lower in Study Area 2 (viz. c. 2 800 m a.s.l. on northerly aspects and c. 2 300 m a.s.l. on southerly aspects). Vegetation-insolation relationships were investigated in Study Area 1 using a model for simulating solar radiation, temperature and potential evaporation patterns on sloping terrain (RADSLOPE). The spatial distribution of the identified vegetation communities and the ratio of temperate (C₃) and subtropical (C₄) grasses in the sward were related to solar irradiance patterns, as influenced by topography. Results suggest that exposure, which increases with altitude, is probably also an important determinant of vegetation pattern in the mountains. The influence of grazing on the vegetation was studied by examining changes in species composition and cover that were associated with gradients in grazing intensity that exist around cattleposts in the mountains. There was little evidence of a shift in species composition and cover under grazing in the Alpine Belt but there was an identifiable grazing gradient in the Subalpine belt. There, short dense grasslands, dominated by palatable species, degrade to a dwarf karroid shrubland with sparse cover under prolonged, intense grazing. The optimum position along the grazing gradient of the more abundant species was identified. It was proposed that the relative positions, or scores, of these species along the grazing gradient can be used in a weighted scoring procedure to provide an index for monitoring the response of the mountain vegetation to grazing. However, the species’ scores still require verification. The need for monitoring temporal changes in vegetation composition and cover in order to assess the possible effects of the LHWP and other development initiatives was noted. Such monitoring should be undertaken in conjunction with an overall programme to assess the dynamics of the socio-economy in the mountains. Therefore, interdisciplinary monitoring programmes are required to achieve this. These programmes should be focused in a few key study locations rather than spread over a wide area. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg.

Grazing lands in Eritrea are degraded due to decades of overstocking and consequent overgrazing. Since the rangelands are accessible to entire village communities, organisation and coordinated decision making regarding the management of these resources is not often achieved. Farmers are not motivated enough to make investments to improve a communally owned resource due to the prevailing common access grazing systems. A field survey was undertaken interviewing 12 farmers in the private access commercial and 80 farmers in the common access subsistence grazing using face to face interviews in the Barka and Arado cattle farming communities in four out of the six regions in Eritrea. Debub, Gash-Barka, S. Keih Bahri and Maekel regions were selected using stratified and simple random sampling methods. The regions were chosen based on various agroecological zones where the representatives of different grass species and the two most common cattle breeds in Eritrea (Arado and Barka) are found. The survey included the collection of data on village and household characteristics focusing on rangeland grazing management systems and additional sources of supplementary forage. The study uses several stages of analysis like principal component analysis accompanied by regression analysis together with descriptive statistics and ordination diagram. The commercial farmers addressed grazing constraints by investing in improved grazing through planting 258 ha per farmer of drought resistant seeds and 1767 vs. 8 cactus slices per farmer and covered 75% vs. 40% of forage requirements from grazing resources compared to the subsistence farmers, respectively, during 2002. These results were achieved because 78% of the commercial farmers adopted controlled stocking rates. In common access grazing, the costs of collective action to control cattle stocking rates are high, making imple mentation of stocking rate controls difficult. As a consequence, 65% of the subsistence farmers were forced to migrate their cattle looking for grazing forage in the dry season during the year. The outcomes of migration were evidenced by the results of severe overgrazing and degradation on the rangelands proximity to villages in Debub and Maekel regions and the populated area of Gash_Barka region. The increased number of animals resulting in high grazing pressure was the consequence of migration. Ten vs. six percent of mortality rates was reported for the subsistence systems compared to the commercial systems respectively. The lower results of milk yield, calving rates and off- take rate productivity indicated in the different stages of analysis for the subsistence farmers were the consequences of the lack of the adoption of controlled stocking rates primarily constrained by the migration. The Barka and Arado cattle farming systems are kept under common access grazing systems. Compared to the Arado cattle farming, the Barka cattle farming region had relatively better access to grazing forage. The better quality of grazing in this region is attributed to a naturally low stock density in the region. During 2002, the Barka cattle farming had 1087 vs. 721 Lit of milk yield, 63% vs. 53% of calving productivity and 9.3% vs. 10.9% of mortality rates than the Arado cattle farming regions respectively, due to access to a wider area of grazing lands and more labour inputs. The Barka cattle area farmers are agro pastoralists and usually focus on grazing dairy cattle farming than crop farming. They increased calving rate productivity and decreased mortality rates by increasing the proportion of lactating cows and decreasing the proportion of oxen compared to the Arado cattle farming. The Arado cattle farming had higher offtake rates and income from cattle sales compared to the Barka cattle farming region. The higher off- take rate, which is an index of percentage of cattle sold, for the Arado cattle was probably linked to the shortage of grazing forage and increased herding costs. The Barka and Arado cattle farmers had a shortage of quality and quantity crop residue winter forage during 2002. Farmers were dependent only on rain fed cropping. The application of crop rotation, fallow and chemical fertilizers were low to enhance soil nutrients. Out of the total crop residues forage produced, only 22% and 15% of legumes residue DM forage was produced for the Barka and Arado cattle farmers respectively. Agro- industrial and crop farming by-products supplementary feeds were also limited due to the shortage of feeds in the country during the year. In general, government intervention is important to bring institutional changes to promote the adoption of controlled stocking rates to alleviate the shortage of grazing forage. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2007.

The overall aim of the study was to investigate re-vegetation of disturbed sites, using nursery grown plugs (from seedling trays) of Themeda triandra, Heteropogon contortus and Hyparrhenia dregeana in order to reach practical management guidelines for re-vegetation using indigenous grass plugs. A number of field trials were set up at Kamberg Nature Reserve (29°24'S, 29°40'E) on a site that was clear felled of A. mearnsii in October 1997. The trials were established in January 1998 and January 1999. A total of approximately 52 ,000 nursery raised plugs of T. triandra, H. contortus and H. dregeana were planted into an area of approximately 7,000 m2 . In the planting density trial , plugs of H. dregeana only and a combination of T. triandra/H. contortus were planted at 15 cm and 30 cm spacings. The T. triandra/H. contortus combination at 30 spacing showed the greatest survival and lateral plant growth (tiller number and basal area) and this combination is thus recommended. In the over-sowing trials, the H. dregeana and T. triandra/H. contortus combination at both 15 cm and 30 cm spacing were over-sown with E. curvula. The survival and lateral growth of the T. triandra/ H. contortus combination at 30 cm was again greater than the other treatments. Over-sowing with E. curvula suppressed the survival and lateral growth of the planted plugs across all treatments compared to not over-sowing. The over-sown conditions showed a significant decrease in the diversity of the plots, both in the number of species present and the Shannon diversity index. An area that had been cleared of A. mearnsii and sown to E. curvula 25 years previously was shown to have a lower number of species than the neighbouring veld. Nursery raised plugs of T. triandra were planted into the mature E. curvula in an attempt to improve the biodiversity of these areas. To re-introduce T. triandra into these E. curvula swards the plugs must be planted into the centre of a gap rather than around the base of an E. curvula plant. For improved survival of the plugs the E. curvula tufts must be clipped, while for best lateral growth the E. curvula tufts must be sprayed with a glyphosate herbicide three months prior to planting and clipping. However, the added expense of spraying and clipping is not warranted as the clipped treatments also showed good growth. Transplant shock is common when planting nursery raised plugs out into the field, as there is a relatively small root volume in the plug compared to the above ground leaf biomass. Alleviation of moisture stress at planting using a starch based polymer with high water holding capacity (Terrasorb®) and a white, needle punched geo-fabric (Agrilen®) to provide a seven day period of artificial shade after planting did not show significant improvements over the control with regards to survival or plant growth. Thus these methods of moisture amelioration are not recommended in revegetation through planting of plugs at this study site. A trial was established to investigate the biomass production of six different treatments to determine their potential to support a fire. The total biomass for the plots which were over-sown by E. tef and planted to only H. dregeana were on average sufficient for a fire, but there was a discontinuous fuel load across these plots, especially in the replications that had very low survival rates and thus these plots could not be burnt. The control and herbicide sprayed plots also showed sufficient fuel load for a fire, but this fuel load was made up of A. mearnsii saplings and bramble with very little grass cover and thus a fire would not have burnt through these plots either. The T. triandra/H. contortus combination did not produce sufficient fuel load, due to poor survival. Thus only the plots over-sown with E. curvula were able to burn in this trial and as a burning trial per se the trial was abandoned. Seed bearing hay (thatch) was collected in early summer (December 1997) and late summer (April 1998). Both times of year of harvesting proved to be successful in terms of grass cover, although the early harvested thatch had a greater number of species per plot. The Shannon diversity indexes of the two treatments were not significantly different. The multi-response permutation procedure technique confirmed that there was a compositional difference between the treatments. By the end of the trial Harpochloa falx and T. triandra and H. dregeana were indicators for the early and the late harvested thatch respectively. Comparing the thatching trial and the planting density trial indicated that the T. triandra/H. contortus combination at 30 cm spacing would be recommended to maximize biodiversity. The summer months have been shown to be the best time to plant the plugs, although the actual success will be dependant on the conditions within a particular year. The plugs should not be kept in the nursery for longer than three months and larger plugs (96 seedlings per tray) should be used. Nursery raised plugs of T. triandra and H. contortus were planted in an equal mix in an area that was cleared of A. mearnsii in 1996. By June 1998 661 H. contortus seedlings and 14 T. triandra seedlings had germinated naturally. The November 1998 population consisted of 418 H. contortus seedlings and 18 T. triandra seedlings. By May 2000 the June 1998 population showed a survival of 78.4% and the November 1998 population showed a survival of 91 .1 %. In the various trials, the ability of the nursery raised plugs used for re-vegetation to suppress the regrowth of A. mearnsii was investigated by determining the number of A. mearnsii seedlings per metre squared. The plant spacing and species of plugs used did not have a significant effect on the number of A. mearnsii seedlings per metre squared. Over-sowing with E. curvula did, however, significantly suppress the wattle re-growth. In the thatching trial the early harvested plots showed lower numbers of A. mearnsii per metre squared than the late harvest plots, as they were covered with a thick layer of thatch soon after the A. mearnsii was cleared which suppressed the A. mearnsii re-growth. Although E. curvula is able to produce a high biomass and suppress the A. meansii seedlings, it has a detrimental effect on the biodiversity of the area. Therefore, in conservation areas, where biodiversity is of great importance the planted plugs (at 30 cm spacing) or seed bearing hay must be used in preference to sowing E. curvula , although it must be remembered that greater follow up control is likely to be needed with planted plugs or seed bearing hay. The area must be planted or thatched as soon as possible after clear felling to provide competition for the A. mearnsii seedlings. / Thesis (M.Sc.Agric.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2005.

A large proportion of the world's land surface is covered by semi-arid grasslands, and they provide an important source of income as a grazing resource. A more comprehensive understanding of these complex ecosystems is vital for the effective management of rangelands, as it will lead to an increased and more sustainable economic output. Herbivores modify the spatial pattern of vegetation distribution and their response to spatially heterogeneous forage resources affects their performance. The spatial aspect of herbivory is often ignored although it is a necessary component of understanding grazing dynamics and the factors affecting herbivore condition. A spatial model is developed which incorporates vegetation and animal dynamics and the interactions between these two components. The effect of different spatial foraging strategies on animal performance and vegetation was investigated. Model results were compared with the output of a non-spatial model to assess the importance of spatially explicit modelling in the context of monitoring animal performance. The relative significance of a number of aspects relating to spatial grazing and animal condition was explored. The results from this research show that significant differences in output are obtained from spatial versus non-spatial models. While the purpose of a model will determine its nature, the results imply that in certain contexts, a spatial model is essential for accurate results and insight. The results also indicated that foraging strategies have a large affect on herbivore condition and that spatially explicit models are necessary in the context of investigating the effect of foraging strategies on animal performance. Various aspects that significantly affected animal condition were highlighted and are useful in directing future investigations into grazing dynamics. It is difficult to conduct field studies under spatially and temporally variable conditions where the interactions between vegetation and herbivores are so complex. In the light of this, modelling was found to be an effective tool that can be used in investigating and revealing important dynamics of semi-arid grazing systems. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 1999.

A long-term grazing trial was started in 1977 at Armoedsvlakte Research Station, about 10km west of Vryburg, in Tarchonanthus veld of the Ghaap’s Plateau, which is a variation of the Kalahari Thornveld veld type. The main aim of this study was to use the extensive veld condition and animal production data set to investigate the effects and interactions of stocking rate, grazing system applied and seasonal rainfall on veld condition and cattle production. The grazing trial has changed three times since its inception resulting in three different phases. The main changes in veld condition during phase one (1977-1991) was due to density independent effects (e.g. seasonal rainfall) and not density dependent effects (e.g. stocking rate). A major change occurred in 1985 following a multiple year drought. The drought resulted in adverse changes in species composition, basal cover and residual biomass of all treatments. The system did not recover from the drought during phase one, despite well above mean seasonal rainfall for a number of years after the drought. During phase two (1992-1999) and phase three (2000 to present) completely different vegetation dynamics occurred than what was experienced during phase one. Density dependent effects (e.g. stocking rate) were more important in explaining variation in veld condition during these two phases. High stocking rates resulted in adverse changes in species composition, poor basal cover and a low residual biomass production. It is however important to note that seasonal rainfall did explain a significant additional amount of variation in veld condition. This suggests that a continuum of non-equilibrium and equilibrium vegetation dynamics occurred in these two phases. The residual biomass and seasonal rainfall model for phase one indicate completely different results for the gain per animal data. In the seasonal rainfall model, stocking rate does not have a significant effect on gain per animal, but seasonal rainfall and the interaction of stocking rate with seasonal rainfall explains most of the variation in gain per animal. This suggest a continuum of non-equilibrium and equilibrium dynamics and that animal production is more sensitive to seasonal rainfall than to stocking rate, although the significant interaction of stocking rate with seasonal rainfall suggest that the seasonal rainfall effect on animal production is dependant on stocking rate. The residual biomass model however indicates that stocking rate is more important than rainfall in explaining variation in the mass gains per animal. The stocking rate effect on gain per animal was significant and indicated that as stocking rate increased, that gain per animal decreases. Seasonal rainfall and the interaction of stocking rate with seasonal rainfall had no significant effect on gain per animal. The amount of variation explained by the seasonal rainfall model was larger than the residual biomass model and this indicates that rainfall explains more variation in gain per animal, than residual biomass does. This possibly indicates that non-equilibrium effects are stronger than the equilibrium effects, but it is important to notice that stocking rate had a significant effect in some cases. The gain per hectare models (seasonal rainfall and residual biomass) for phase one indicates that stocking rate has a significant effect on gain per hectare. Increasing stocking rates resulted in higher gain per hectare, which suggests that the turning point of the typical “Jones and Sandland model” has not been reached and this might be due to light stocking rates applied during the duration of phase one. The seasonal rainfall model however has significant effects of seasonal rainfall and interactions of stocking rate with seasonal rainfall on gain per hectare. This suggests that the effect of stocking rate is dependent on seasonal rainfall and that seasonal rainfall explain an additional amount of variation in gain per hectare. In general, it appreared that the optimal stocking rate for animal production was higher than those applied during the duration of the trial, but this is due to lower than planned actual stocking rates applied during all three phases of the trial. It is very difficult to determine a generic optimal stocking rate for different rainfall volumes and it is recommended that the actual stocking rate for different ecological zones be determined based on rainfall, biomass, species compos[i]tion, basal cover and available browse and not just on the provisional recommendations. The type of grazing system applied did not show any statistically significant effects on both gain per animal and gain per hectare for the animal production data during phase one. This result is interesting and contradictive to most of the scientific literature where some authors concluded from their studies that rotational grazing systems produce higher animal production than continuous grazing systems, whereas others researchers state that continuous grazing systems produce higher animal production than rotational grazing systems. In phase two both the residual biomass and seasonal rainfall models for phase two did not show any significant effects and interactions of stocking rate, seasonal rainfall level and/or residual biomass on both gain per animal and gain per hectare. Both the residual biomass and seasonal rainfall models for phase three did not show any significant effects and interactions of stocking rate, seasonal rainfall level and/or residual biomass on animal gains per animal. The seasonal rainfall model did not show any any significant effects and interactions of stocking rate, seasonal rainfall level and/or residual biomass on animal gains per hectare. However, the residual biomass model indicated that stocking rate had a significant effect on gain per hectare and the production closely followed the Jones and Sandland (1974) model as at low stocking rates, gain per hectare increases at a rapid rate, but as stocking rates increases to high stocking rates, the rate of increase in gain per hectare declines, until it eventually reaches a turning point, where after gain per hectare declines with increasing stocking rates. Stocking rate only had a significant effect on the condition score of cows during phase two and phase three, as high stocking rates resulted in poor animal condition in both phases. No significant effects and interactions of stocking rate and seasonal rainfall were indicated on calving percentage, weaning percentage, conception rates and percentage of desirable meat produced during phase two. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, [2011].

Effects of herbivory, fire, and tree harvesting on Acacia drepanolobium were studied using plant population dynamics as the philosophical basis of research. Specifically, growth rates, chrono-sequence of re-growth, biomass and charcoal yield, herbivory, flowering, seed production, germination, mortality and the ants of Acacia drepanolobium were studied in the black cotton ecosystem of Mpala Research Centre, Laikipia, Kenya, between September 1995 and December 2000. Acacia drepanolobium was the most abundant tree or shrub with densities ranging from 80% to 98% of all the overstorey species, but it was the least browsed of all the trees and shrubs in the black cotton ecosystem, ranging from a mean of 7.2% to 9% of the individuals browsed. The tree is inhabited by four Acacia ant species, Crematogaster mimosae, Crematogaster sjoestedti, Crematogaster nigriceps, and Tetraponera penzigi, which are believed to be obligate, and which probably play a role in the low browsing rates observed. Six herbivore treatments replicated three times (no herbivores - O; only cattle - C, all herbivores allowed - MWC {control}, mega-herbivores {elephants and giraffe} and wildlife {W} – MW only, wildlife – W - only {all wildlife except mega-herbivores} and wildlife and cattle only - WC) was the main experimental design used in understanding the dynamics of the tree species under influence of different herbivores. Mean annual height growth of A. drepanolobium trees was 24.9 cm yr-1, while the mean Relative Growth Rates ranged from 14.6 x 10 –3 cm cm-1 yr-1 to 18.7 x 10 –3 cm cm-1 yr-1. Growth rates were different among the herbivore treatments and between seasons. Shoots of the tree grew by a mean range of 6.8 cm to 9.1 cm, were similar among the treatments but differed among the seasons. Canopy volume increased over time although it fluctuated with seasons, suggesting an increase in bushiness of A. drepanolobium in the ecosystem. Trees occupied by different ant species showed differences in shoot density (number of new shoots per twig), being greater in Crematogaster nigriceps occupied trees compared with the other ant species. Swollen thorn (gall) density per unit of twig length was greatest in treatments with megaherbivores; these galls were significantly larger on trees occupied by the ant Crematogaster nigriceps. Treatments with herbivores were more spinescent than the total exclusion treatment. Spine lengths ranged from 0.8 to 2.4 cm, and recorded a progressive reduction of up to 36.36.7% in treatments without browsers suggesting a relaxation of induced defence in A. drepanolobium. Flowering in A. drepanolobium was low and staggered over the study period ranging from 0.8% to 2.0% of the trees with no differences among the treatments suggesting that the level of herbivory was not sufficient to influence reproduction of the tree in the experimental site. Consequently, seedling recruitment was very low within the experimental site. However, a nearby site recorded flowering of between 22.7% and 93.5%. Mean pod production, mean number of seeds per tree and mean weight of pods and seeds had a positive linear relationship with tree density (R2=0.77, 0.81 and 0.81 respectively). Trees occupied by Crematogaster mimosae were the most likely to flower (68%) compared with C. nigriceps (5.8%), again suggesting that ants had an effect on the tree’s reproduction. Mortality of A. drepanolobium trees averaged 0.9% to 4.2% over the study period, being significantly greater in treatments with mega-herbivores. Seedling survival ranged from 42% to 75%, being greatest in the cattle only treatment. Between 30% and 100% (mean 67.2%), of A. drepanolobium seeds were attacked by a bruchid beetle (Bruchus sp.). Seeds attacked by bruchid beetles had significantly lower germination rates. Similarly, seeds passed through a fire also recoded significantly low germination rates compared with normal seeds. Fire (3.4%) and bruchid beetles (20.7%) germination compared with (control) undamaged seeds (84%) play an important role in the population dynamics of A. drepanolobium. Fewer A. drepanolobium seeds (33%) were recovered from the surface compared with buried (72%) seeds after a fire, indicating seed loss from the effect of fire and predation. In the burn experiment, fire top-killed 16% of A. drepanolobium trees but no tree or seedling was killed. On the other hand, fire significantly reduced the density of non-A. drepanolobium trees by between 50% and 100%, with none of them showing signs of coppicing after the fire unlike top-killed A. drepanolobium trees. Woody biomass from A. drepanolobium was strongly related to stem diameter (Y = 3.77x + 1.17, R2 = 0.96, P < 0.001). Mean charcoal production from earthen kilns was 2.83 Mg ha- 1. Height and stem diameter in coppicing stands increased at a mean rate of 28.6 cm yr-1 and 0.7 cm yr-1 respectively. Biomass in coppicing stands accumulated at a mean rate of 1.3 Mg ha-1 yr-1 in a 14-year period, yielding dry biomass of 18.26 Mg ha-1 useable wood that can produce a minimum of 3.0 Mg ha-1 of charcoal. This study shows that Acacia drepanolobium populations are affected by several factors including herbivory, fire and ants. The population dynamics of this tree shows that it can be harvested for sustainable charcoal yield over a 14-year cycle. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2007.

Some of Australia’s most pressing conservation problems are found in the arid and semi-arid rangelands where the traditional major land-use is extensive pastoralism. Yet with the emergence of a change in resource values, the rangelands of Australia have started to move away from a strict production land-use towards a multifunctional land-use where pastoralism, tourism and the environment have an influence on one another. With the present mixture of consumption and protection values in the rangelands, ecotourism represents a model for achieving a symbiotic relationship between tourism activity and conservation in a pastoral setting. This study develops a theoretical framework for understanding the relationships between ecotourism, pastoralism and ecological recovery efforts in the Flinders Ranges through employing mixed qualitative and quantitative research techniques to examine the perceptions and practices of tourism operators, local landholders and visitors to the study site. The study finds that while pastoralism and its level of success often remain variable, the strength and stability of tourism is increasing. Because economics is a central component of the concept of sustainability, and because we must manage the environment while accommodating tourists, ecotourism is one way to help reach rangeland sustainability goals, provided that there are adequate levels of agreement amongst the local community and other land users. The results indicate that the vast majority of stakeholders are currently in a state of co-existence with each other rather than one of conflict, suggesting ecotourism has the potential to assist ecological recovery. However, many landholders are constrained in their ability to integrate ecotourism operations and conservation due to economic difficulties and market barriers. There are also conflicting results among visitors who claim to be interested in ecotourism but do not necessarily act accordingly, highlighting the need for a greater focus on environmental education. Ecotourism should be incorporated into a regional sustainability plan where the public are able to assist decision makers through collaborative planning. The thesis concludes that when well-managed, ecotourism can be a business supporting conservation in the Flinders Ranges. It contributes to knowledge of the role that ecotourism can play in encouraging ecological recovery in the rangelands and explores the complex interrelationships involved through consultation with the primary stakeholders of landholders, tourism operators and visitors. / http://proxy.library.adelaide.edu.au/login?url= http://library.adelaide.edu.au/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=1346333 / Thesis (Ph.D.) - University of Adelaide, School of Social Sciences, 2008

The study was conducted in Eastern Cape Province to 1) investigate local people’s knowledge and perceptions on Euryops floribundus and 2) landscape distribution and effect of Euryops floribundus on herbaceous vegetation and soil. A total of 90 households who own livestock were randomly selected from the three communal areas, namely; Tsengiwe, Upper Mnxe and Manzimdaka for household surveys and group discussions. For landscape study, a total of about 5 ha of land were selected at Upper Mnxe communal area. Selection criteria included the presence of E. floribundus and different landscape gradients. A total of four 50mx50 plots were marked along the landscape gradients: Bottom, Middle, and Upper Slope and upland positions. To study the effect of E. floribundus invasion on the herbaceous vegetation and soil, a total of 4 ha communal land was selected in an accessible area which had a largely flat terrain. The area was selected to have adjacent sites with no invasion (< 5% shrub cover), light (5-15% shrub cover), moderate (>15-35) and heavy invasions (>35% shrub cover) of E. floribundus. The average household size in the study area was 6.8± 0.7. All people in the three communal areas unanimously ranked sheep as the most important species for their livelihood, but the ranking of cattle and goat varied among the communal areas. All elder groups agreed that Europs floribundus decreases both the quantity and quality of herbaceous forage as well as livestock production. Moreover, invaded patches create more bare areas which are responsible for the loss of top fertile soils and the formation of rills and gullies. The result showed that the total density of E. floribundus significantly increased from the topland (2301 plants ha-1) moving to the bottomland (4888 plants ha-1). Canopy cover was significantly lowest in the topland (17.9%), but the remaining gradients had similar cover. Grass dry matter yield was higher in the bottomlands and sloppy gradients than the toplands. Soil organic carbon was significantly higher (P<0.05) in the flat than the sloppy terrain. Soils from higher elevations (toplands and upper sloppy) had significantly higher N than the lower elevations (bottomlands and Middle sloppy). The lowest dry matter was observed at low invasion and non-invaded sites. Soil chemical properties were generally different from all density levels. In conclusion, E. floribundus encroachment was found to be major cause of decline in the peoples’ livelihood because as this reduces the vegetation diversity and livestock production, both of which are the major of their livelihoods.

Orientador: Sônia Maria Pessoa Pereira Bergamasco / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Filosofia e Ciências Humanas / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-21T14:01:06Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Piccin_MarcosBotton_D.pdf: 4442939 bytes, checksum: a7bcd18fc7226ac4699ff432b47fd909 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012 / Resumo: Esta tese analisa as estratégias de reprodução social dos grandes proprietários fundiários criadores de gado do Rio Grande do Sul a partir do estabelecimento da República, cujos domínios se convencionou chamar de estâncias e de estancieiros seus senhores. Por estratégias se entende o conjunto das práticas pelos quais os indivíduos ou grupos de indivíduos procuram manter ou melhorar sua posição na estrutura social. Trata-se de desvendar as práticas através das quais este setor social busca conservar ou ampliar seus diferenciais de poder em relação aos demais agentes do espaço social, assim como o feixe de condições sociais em que elas ocorrem. A história de ocupação contemporânea do território deste estado, marcada por grandes propriedades de criar nas suas áreas de campos e pela instalação de colônias de imigrantes europeus em áreas de florestas, sobretudo de alemães e italianos, determinou influências mútuas quanto à dinâmica dos poderes exercidos nestes espaços sociais. No espaço estancieiro houve um duplo bloqueio aos setores subordinados relativo ao impedimento de migrar para as áreas de matas, devido à instalação das colônias, e à impossibilidade de migrações coletivas ao trabalho industrial devido à preferência do braço imigrante, ao menos até meados de 1950, e das dinâmicas de desenvolvimento das regiões coloniais que fazia ampliar a concorrência pela oferta de mão de obra nas áreas industriais. Esses efeitos, somados aos da Lei de Terras de 1850, aos cercamentos dos campos, à força e violência na apropriação privada da terra, determinaram a estrutura de poderes assimétricos na qual os estancieiros desenvolveram relações de dominação personalizada em relação à força de trabalho em seus domínios até o início da década de 1990. Externamente à estrutura de dominação do espaço estancieiro, a complexidade das relações entre os grupos dominantes no espaço estadual e nacional promoveu uma grande transformação da elite estancieira a partir de meados de 1940: deixar de ser subsidiária às lavouras de exportação do Nordeste açucareiro e do Sudeste cafeeiro, para se tornar produtora de um artigo de luxo, a carne frigorificada, a partir de uma rede de frigoríficos por eles coordenada. A trajetória de ascensão coletiva da elite estancieira, devido, sobretudo, à valorização do preço dos gados, se dá até o final da década de 1980, quando a baixa dos preços dos gados provoca a quebra de seus frigoríficos, havendo maior pressão para reconversão de trajetórias a partir de então. Essa história objetivada também determinou uma história incorporada na forma habitus, em termos de princípios de visão e divisão do mundo, comportamentos e disposições sociais que são externalizadas em suas práticas, além dos investimentos e cálculos específicos não somente relativos aos propriamente econômicos, mas também em termos de acúmulo de capitais sociais e culturais. À decadência relativa que se inicia a partir de meados de 1990, que é de seu capital social, além do econômico, processa-se um descompasso e inaptidão de seus habitus frente ao que é exigido em termos de disposições sociais pelas alterações que ocorrem no espaço social e, grosso modo, pela sociedade em geral / Abstract: The present thesis analyzes the strategies of social reproduction of the large landowners breeders in Rio Grande do Sul from the establishment of the Republic, whose domain is conventionally called ranches and ranchers their masters. The strategies are meant the set of practices by which individuals or groups of individuals seek to maintain or improve their position in the social structure. It means to unveil the practices through which this social sector or expanding your search conserve power differentials in relation to other agents of social space, as well as the bundle of social conditions in which they occur. The contemporary history of occupation of the territory in this state is marked by great estates created in their areas of fields and installation of colonies of European immigrants in forest areas, especially Germans and Italians, established mutual influences on the dynamics of these powers exercised in social spaces. Within rancher's domain there was a double lock on the subordinate sectors as an impediment to migrate to areas of forests, due to the installation of the colonies, and the impossibility of collective labor migration due to the branch of the industrial immigrant preference, at least until mid-1950, and the dynamics of development of the regions that made colonial increase competition by offering labor in industrial areas. These effects, together with the Land Law of 1850, the enclosure of the fields, to force and violence in the private appropriation of land, determined the structure of power in which ranchers had asymmetrical customized relations of domination developed in relation to the workforce in their fields until the early 1990s. Externally the structure of domination of rancher's space, the complexity of the relationships between dominant groups within state and national organized a major transformation of rancher's elite from mid-1940: stop being subsidiary to export crops of sugar from Northeast and coffee from Southeast, to become producing a luxury, meat cold storage, from a network of refrigeration coordinated by them. The trajectory of collective rancher's elite rise, mainly due to the appreciation in the price of cattle, occurs until the late 1980s, when lower prices for cattle causes the breakdown of their refrigerators, with greater pressure for conversion of trajectories since then. This story objectified also determined a corporate history as habitus, in terms of principles of vision and division of the world, social behaviors and dispositions that are outsourced in their practices, in addition to investments and specific calculations not only for the specifically economic, but also in terms of accumulation of social and cultural capital. The relative decadence that begins from mid 1990, which is its capital, beyond the economic processes are a mismatch and ineptitude of their habitus forward to what is required in terms of social provisions for changes that occur in social space and roughly by society in general / Doutorado / Ciencias Sociais / Doutor em Ciências Sociais

Desertification is the diminution or destruction of the biological potential of land, and can lead ultimately to desert-like conditions. The vegetation of southern Africa is claimed to have altered over the past 100 years and much of the change is attributed to pastoral practice. In recent years however there has been much debate around the issue of the deterioration and loss of productivity of the natural rangelands, specifically those under communal management. It is one thing to claim that the vegetation has changed but quite another to produce data and analyses to show this unequivocally. Furthermore it is generally difficult to determine the nature and extent of change in natural ecosystems, as one does not know what the optimal base-line conditions should be. For this reason emphasis has been placed on developing models of potential or expected vegetation. By comparing a model of potential or expected vegetation with that of the contemporary vegetation, areas that deviate from expectation can be identified, in so doing providing evidence of the direction of change in the rangelands under various management treatments. The objective of this study was to determine shifts in the vegetation under different land-use treatments, by developing a technique to predict the potential vegetation of an area. In order to explore the nature and extent of degradation at the landscape scale a study site was selected where a range of land-use and rangeland management practices could be studied in parallel. The mid-Fish River valley consists of three markedly different units of land management, namely commercial rangelands, communal rangelands and nature conservation areas. The vegetation within the mid-Fish River valley falls within the Thicket biome and consists of three main vegetation types namely, Short Succulent Thicket, Medium Succulent Thicket and Mesic Bushclump Savanna. The creation of this potential vegetation model was dependent on the direct gradient analysis approach of relating the community patterns with environmental variables. To achieve this, floristic information was collected at sites along a topographical-moisture gradient. A Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) between the environmental variables and the plant communities produced a classification from which the conditions normally associated with the major plant communities were predicted. When projected as a digital map, the qualifying sites provided a testable hypothesis of the potential vegetation. The results of this study showed a definite grazing gradient, which reflects a change from a more mesic environment towards a more arid environment with an increase in utilisation pressure. The predictive vegetation model proved to be useful for predicting the occurrence of the valley thicket communities within the Eastern Cape.