Information on milk production could be useful in designing strategies that would help to improve milk production in communal farming systems. This study was conducted to determine milk production and calf performance of Nguni and crossbreds under smallholder cattle production conditions. Four trials were conducted in the study. The objective of the first trial was to determine farmer perceptions on milk production and calf rearing in smallholder areas. Data were obtained from 218 smallholder farmers, using a structured questionnaire. Smallholder farmer sector is constituted by small scale commercial farmers and communal farmers. Small-scale commercial farmers in South Africa obtained farms from the government through land claims or they bought the farms. Their farming background is a communal type. Communal farmers are farmers that are sharing the same grazing land and animals are managed according to the experience of the owner. The findings in this study indicated that there were numerous constraints to milk production in smallholder areas. These included lack of technical expertise and poor veterinary support services. The farmers also indicated that calf performance was low. The second trial was conducted to determine if there were differences in calf performance, gastrointestinal parasites and nutritionally-related blood metabolites between Nguni and crossbred calves. Body weights and faecal samples were collected monthly until weaning at six months. The levels of total protein, albumin, globulins, non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA), glucose, cholesterol and minerals were determined monthly. Nguni calves had higher birth weights than crossbreds (P<0.05). Average daily gain and weaning weights of Nguni calves were greater than crossbred calves (P<0.05. Nguni calves had lower total protein at early age after birth (P<0.05). However, at weaning Nguni calves had higher total protein than crossbreds (P<0.05). Nguni calves had higher levels of glucose and NEFA concentrations than crossbred calves (P<0.05). In the third trial, milk utilisation patterns in smallholder areas of the Eastern Cape were assessed. Cattle owners (n = 130) were randomly selected in three different regions to determine milk consumption patterns, milk sales, prices and factors influencing these activities. The information was gathered using milk recording sheets, which were administered in February (early lactation) and June (late lactation) in 2009. Milk consumption per household was similar among the three districts (P>0.05). Milk was utilised as both fresh and sour. Fresh milk was utilised with tea/coffee and porridge. Excess fresh milk was utilised to feed pets (mostly cats and puppies). The puppies were fed on mostly whey, and, at times, on fresh milk. Sour milk was utilised to prepare of umvubo (a mixture of sour milk and scrambled porridge (umphokoqo) or a mixture of sour milk and bread). In some cases, excess milk was given to neighbours as a form of social investment and fame. The quality of milk from Nguni and crossbred cows was compared in the fourth trial. Milk samples were evaluated for quality in early (February), mid (April) and late (June) lactation in 2009. The essential amino acids, non-essential amino acids and fatty acids were determined. Nguni milk had higher amino acids and fatty acids concentration than crossbreds (P<0.05). Nguni milk had higher arginine levels in the early and mid lactation periods compared to crossbred cows (P<0.05). Nguni milk had higher methionine and threonine levels than crossbred cows (P<0.05). Methionine levels in Nguni were 0.15, 0.19 and 0.18 in early, mid and late lactation while crossbred had 0.05, 0.05 and 0.06 (g/100ml), respectively. There were significant interactions between lactation stage and genotype for lysine levels with Nguni milk having higher (P<0.05) lysine levels in the mid and late lactation periods. Nguni cows had higher tyrosine, glycine and proline levels than crossbred cows (P<0.05). In the early lactation, Nguni cows had higher serine levels than crossbred cows (P<0.05). In mid lactation crossbred cows had higher serine levels than Nguni cows (P<0.05). There were significant differences between genotypes on fatty acid composition. Nguni milk had higher C12:0 levels than crossbreds (P<0.05). However, milk from crossbred cows had higher C14:0 levels than that for Nguni cows (P<0.05) and also had higher levels of C16:0 and C18:0 fatty acids compared to Nguni cows. Crossbred milk had higher levels of C18n1n9t in early lactation period than Nguni and decreased as the stage of lactation progressed (P<0.05). In the early lactation, the levels of C18n1nC in Nguni milk were higher (P<0.05) than in late lactation. In the mid and late lactation, crossbred cows milk had higher C18n1nC levels than in early lactation (P<0.05). Lactation stage and genotype affected saturated fatty, monounsaturated fatty acids, cis-fatty acids and omega 3 (n-3) to omega 6 (n-6). In general, Nguni milk had higher mineral composition than crossbred milk (P<0.05). In conclusion, Nguni calves performed better than crossbred calves under communal rangelands. There is a need for crossing Nguni cows with dairy breeds in commercial dairying by smalhoder farmers as a strategy for improving both milk quality and quantity.

Thesis (M.Sc. Agriculture (Pasture Science)) -- University of Limpopo, 2021 / Savanna rangelands are ecosystems which are characterized by the co-existence of scattered trees and shrubs with a continuous grass layer. However, the grass and tree balance has been highly altered as a result of disturbances caused by bush encroachment. Encroaching woody species have been shown to decrease species richness and abundance of the seed bank and ground‐layer diversity. So far little is known on the effect of bush encroachment and soil depth on the soil seed bank diversity in savanna rangelands. The objectives of this mini-dissertation were to (1) determine the influence of soil depth on soil seed bank diversity in bush encroached savanna rangelands, and (2) determine the relationships between soil seed bank herbaceous vegetation and physicochemical properties in encroached rangeland. In order to address these objectives, a savanna rangeland was demarcated into two encroachment gradients spanning from open to encroached rangeland. Within each encroachment gradient, six plots of 10 m x 10 m were randomly selected, whereby soil sampling and herbaceous vegetation were carried out and determined. In each replicate plot per encroachment level, five soil samples were randomly collected at 0-10 and 10-20 cm depths. The number of seedlings of different species emerging from the soil samples was used as a measure of the number of viable seeds in the soil and the composition of the seed bank using the seedling emergence method. The total seed densities showed significant differences (P<0.05) in the 0-10 cm depth layer in the open rangeland and encroached rangeland. Bush encroachment significantly (P<0.05) decreased the seed density of perennial grasses, specifically in 0-10 cm depth layer. Further, species diversity increased with bush encroachment in the 10-20 cm depth layer. Menhinick’s richness index showed no significant difference in the open and encroached rangeland, while species evenness decreased in the 0-10 cm depth layer and increased at 10-20 cm depth.The study also revealed negative correlations between organic carbon, calcium, clay, silt and forbs while mean weight diameter (MWD), a measure of soil aggregate stability was positively correlated with forbs. The canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) showed that pH, phosphorus, potassium and calcium were positively correlated to Eragrostis curvula and magnesium was negatively correlated to Panicum maximum. In open rangeland, CCA revealed that clay content was negatively correlated with species evenness while xii magnesium was negatively correlated to the Shannon Weiner index. Further, silt content was positively correlated with species richness and evenness. In the encroached rangeland, the CCA showed a negative correlation between magnesium and the Shannon Weiner index. The Sørensen’s index between soil seed banks and aboveground vegetation was low with index values of 0.22 and 0.24 in open and encroached rangeland, respectively. / AgriSeta

The threefold question researched herein is: (1) What are the extent and potential economic consequences of land parcelization in Klickitat County?, (2)What are the political and social costs of parcelization?, and (3) What measures today are, or could be, used to ameliorate the land use conflict? These are answered by studying the various aspects of the problem, including the historic land use change, legal mechanisms which regulate livestock grazing and land parcelization; taxation; the economic-effect upon livestock production; crime and social conflict; costs to county services; and environmental impacts. The geography of the change itself is depicted on several maps.

Thesis (MAgric (Agricultural Economics))—University of Stellenbosch, 2006. / The natural resources mainly land, forests, and grazing lands in the Highlands ago-ecological zone of Eritrea are in a severely degraded state. And much of these common pool resources comprise commons i.e. they are managed under the common property rights management regimes. “The tragedy of the commons”, model suggests that all commons will inexorably suffer overexploitation and degradation. Contrary to this deterministic proposition, however, common property theory argues that the ‘tragedy’ is not due to inherent flaws in the common property rights management regimes, but because of institutional failure to control access to resources, and to make and enforce internal decisions for collective use. If the commons dilemma situation exists- i.e. ‘tragedy’, then the underlying problem is the degeneration of the existing common property rights resource management regime into open-access-like regime—a condition that can potentially trigger “the tragedy of the commons”. The question of how to deal with the problem of the commons is, therefore, primarily an issue of the existence of efficient institutions. The prevailing severe degradation of the common-pool resources in the Highlands of the country thus calls into question the robustness of the common property rights regimes that are in place for the governance of these resources. This thesis attempts to address this important problem specifically in relation to forest and grazing land common pool resources. A case study based on a single-case qualitative and exploratory-explanatory research design was carried out in a village located in the Highlands of the country. Data were collected through various forms of interviews (semi-structured interviews, in-depth interviews, key informants interviews, group discussions, and informal conversational interviews), direct observation, and document review. The data, gathered largely through using these separate lines of enquiry, were crosschecked to provide a triangulation of methods and to strengthen the validity and reliability of the data. The empirical findings reveal that existing common property rights management regimes for the management of the local common pool resources of the case study area have weakened over time. These findings indicate that, there is a significant incongruence between appropriation and provision rules. And this is manifested in terms of appropriation externalities and demand side and supply side provision externalities. This situation implies that existing local institutional arrangements i.e. common property rights management regimes in the case study area are not sufficiently robust to solve common pool resource appropriation and provision externalities. Though generalisation cannot be made beyond the case that was studied, there are several lessons that may be drawn from this field analysis, which may have valid implications for the natural resources management challenges and opportunities of the entire Highlands agoecological zone of the country.

Thesis (MScConsEcol (Conservation Ecology and Entomology))--University of Stellenbosch, 2005. / The veld condition in the Little Karoo is in various states of degradation and grazing by domestic livestock is considered as the major anthropogenic force that changed the landscape. This region with its extremely rich plant species diversity and endemics, has supported small livestock for at least 2 000 years, and since colonization (250 years ago) been intensively used for the production of a variety of livestock. Ostrich production developed as the major source of income for this region. The first part of this study investigates the current veld management practices employed by livestock farmers in the Little Karoo region. Recommended veld management practices considered in this study are grazing rotation, moderate stocking rate control, moderate veld utilisation, separation of ecotopes, veld rehabilitation, controlling declared weeds and alien vegetation and regular assessment of veld condition. One hundred randomly selected farmers were personally interviewed by means of a structured questionnaire. Questions were grouped into the following categories: (a) demography of farmers, (b) ostrich farming, (c) perceptions and knowledge of farmers on farming practices, (d) grazing rotation, (e) stocking rate, (f) veld utilisation and veld assessment, (g) separation of ecotopes, (h) veld rehabilitation, (i) control of alien vegetation and (j) farmers’ knowledge on legislation. This was used to obtain information on the Little Karoo farming community, sizes of farms and camps, types of farming enterprises and on adoption of recommended veld management practices in the region. The main findings from this section are that relatively small farming units with few camps, poor separation of ecotopes and a low estimated grazing capacity, limit extensive livestock farming within the region. Perceptions of farmers on veld condition, grazing rotation, stocking rate, separation of ecotopes are fairly optimistic. As a result grazing capacities are overestimated and overstocking occurs within this region. The current stocking rate in ostrich camps (67.7% overstocked) and mammalian livestock camps (55.1% overstocked) is evidence that farmers overstock to compensate for these limiting factors in order to make a living from the land. The majority of farmers are well aware of the Articles in the Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act of 1983, which are applicable to veld management. Only more that 50% comply with this legislation by rehabilitating veld and 80% of them control invasive alien species on their farm. In the second part, veld assessments were done in randomly selected veld camps, using the multi-criterion, semi-subjective Quick Rangeland Health Assessment (QRHA) Method. Veld condition was significantly poorer closer to water or feeding points due to the piosphere effect caused by livestock. Veld condition in the Little Karoo can be related to altitude, vegetation types and land use. Therefore, the lowlying Little Succulent Karoo vegetation type is in a poorer condition compared to Spekboom Succulent Thicket and South and South-west Coast Renosterveld. Ostrich production on plains in the Little Succulent Karoo vegetation type is the main cause for the degradation of this vegetation type. It would seem as if historically high stocking rates cannot be ignored in explaining the current veld condition. A positive correlation between veld condition and the diversity of plant species (species density) were found, which highlights the importance of good veld management practices in sustainable agriculture. The third part tested whether all indicators in the QRHA method are equally sensitive and whether there is a positive correlation between the QRHA method and the Grazing Index Method. A significant positive linear correlation was found between the two methods. Cover was the least sensitive indicator of rangeland condition, and livestock induced disturbances (which include the indicators grazing intensity, disturbance indicators, soil health and species richness) were the most sensitive for Karoo veld assessment. A major benefit of the QRHA method is heuristic; therefore this method may have value in agricultural extension work.

Thesis (MSc (Conservation Ecology and Entomology))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLISH SUMMARY: Protected areas do not always achieve the desired level of biodiversity conservation, while often reducing the welfare of indigenous communities by reducing availability of land for subsistence. Traditional agricultural landscapes are significant biodiversity refugia and can contribute meaningfully to conservation. Rangelands comprise one-third to one-half of the world’s terrestrial surface, providing livelihoods for around 220 million people, usually in a communal subsistence system. Colonial practices impinged on traditional land-use practices with far-reaching social and environmental impacts. This has resulted in management based on assumptions regarding vegetation dynamics and traditional lifestyles that are increasingly shown to be inaccurate. A comparison of a vegetation survey based on conventional scientific methods and a survey of the perceptions of pastoralists was undertaken to highlight differences and similarities between the two knowledge systems with the hope of providing guidelines for more sustainable land-use practices in the communal rangelands of Namaqualand, South Africa. Vegetation responses to removal of grazing pressure revealed complex interactions that do not correspond with the prevailing management paradigm. Rather than a predictive relationship between livestock and vegetation, environmental factors play a large role in determining plant composition, abundance and cover. Pastoralists’ perceptions reflected this complexity in rangeland resource dynamics. The impact of livestock on rangeland resource dynamics was perceived by herders to be secondary to a range of environmental and climatic factors. Both sets of results were at odds with the theories that currently govern management in this system. Studies in rangeland systems must take the complexity of the subject into account. Research into such socio-ecological systems must take a multiplicity of factors – social, environmental, economic, political and other – into account. Implications for management are that it is inappropriate to adhere strictly to the conventional, conservative strategies that are prescribed by conservation and agricultural authorities. Rather, a more flexible, opportunistic grazing strategy would allow the persistence of traditional subsistence livelihoods without serious negative consequences for biodiversity conservation. / AFRIKAANSR OPSOMMING: Die instelling van beskermde gebiede lewer nie altyd die gewenste vlak van biodiversiteitsbewaring, terwyl die welvaart van plaaslike gemeenskappe dikwels daaronder ly deur die afname in grond beskikbaar vir bestaanspraktyke. Tradisionele landboulandskappe is beduidende biodiversiteitshawens wat ‘n belangrike bydrae tot bewaring kan maak. Weivelde bevat ‘n derde tot ‘n helfte van die wêreld se landsoppervlakte en ondersteun rondom 220 miljoen mense, gewoonlik binne ‘n gemeenskaplike bestaansstelsel. Kolonialisasie het inbraak gemaak op tradisionele bestuurspraktyke, met verrykende sosialeen omgewingsimpakte. Dit het gelei tot bestuurspraktyke gebaseer op standpunte oor plantegroeidinamika en traditionele lewenswyses wat toenemend verkeerd bywys word. ‘n Vergelyking van ‘n plantegroei opname gebaseer op konvensionele wetenskaplike metodes en ‘n opname van die standpunte van veewagters is onderneem om die verskille en ooreenkomstes tussen die twee kennisstelsels uiteen te lê met die hoop om riglyne vir meer volhoubare bestuurspraktyke in die meentgronde van Namakwaland, Suid-Afrika te verskaf. Plantegroei reaksies tot die verwydering van weidingsdruk wys op komplekse interaksies wat nie ooreenstem met die heersende bestuursparadigma. Eerder as ‘n voorspelbare verwantskap tussen vee en plantegroei, omgewingsfaktore speel ‘n groot rol in die bepaling van plantgemeenskapsamestelling, -getalle en grondbedekking. Die veewagters se standpunte het hierdie kompleksiteit in plantegroeidinamika weerspiëel. Die impak van vee op die weiveldhulpbron is deur veewagters as sekondêr beskou teenoor ‘n reeks omgewings- en klimaatsfaktore. Beide stel resultate is in teenstelling met die teoriëe wat tans bestuur in hierdie stelsel bepaal. Studies in weiveldstelsels moet die kompleksiteit daarvan in ag neem. Navorsing oor hierdie sosio-ekologiese stelsels moet ‘n verskeidenheid faktore – sosiale-, omgewings-, ekonomiese-, politiese- en ander – in ag neem. Implikasies vir bestuur is dat dit onvanpas is om te volhard met konvensionele, konservatiewe strategiëe voorgeskryf deur bewarings- en landboukundige gesagte. ‘n Meer aanpasbare, voordeelnemende weidingsstrategie sal die voortbestaan van traditionele bestaanslewenspraktyke toelaat sonder ernstige negatiewe nagevolge vir biodiversiteitsbewaring.

This thesis examines the responses of non-indigenous pastoralists in Central Australian rangelands to two social movements that profoundly challenge their occupancy, use and management of land. Contemporary environmentalism and Aboriginal land rights have both challenged the status of pastoralists as valued primary producers and bearers of a worthy pioneer heritage. Instead, pastoralists have become associated with land degradation, biodiversity loss, and Aboriginal dispossession. Such pressure has intensified in the 1990s in the wake of the native Title debate, and various conservation campaigns in the arid and semi-arid rangelands. The pressure on pastoralists occur in the context of wider reassessment of the social and economic values or rangelands in which pastoralism is seen as having declined in value compared to ???post-production??? land uses. Reassessments of rangelands in turn are part of the global changes in the status of rural areas, and of the growing flexibility in the very meaning of ???rural???. Through ethnographic fieldwork among largely non-indigenous pastoralists in Central Australia, this thesis investigates the nature and foundations of pastoralists??? responses to these changes and critiques. Through memory, history, labour and experience of land, non-indigenous pastoralists construct a narrative of land, themselves and others in which the presence of pastoralism in Central Australia is naturalised, and Central Australia is narrated as an inherently pastoral landscape. Particular types of environmental knowledge and experience, based in actual environmental events and processes form the foundation for a discourse of pastoral property rights. Pastoralists accommodate environmental concerns, through advocating environmental stewardship. They do this in such a way that Central Australia is maintained as a singularly pastoral landscape, and one in which a European, or ???white???, frame of reference continues to dominate. In this way the domesticated pastoral landscapes of colonialism and nationalism are reproduced. The thesis also examines Aboriginal pastoralism as a distinctive form of pastoralism, which fulfils distinctly Aboriginal land use and cultural aspirations, and undermines the conventional meaning of ???pastoralism??? itself. The thesis ends by suggesting that improved dialogue over rangelands futures depends on greater understanding of the details and complexities of local relationships between groups of people, and between people and land.

Accompanying CD-ROM inside back cover, includes Appendices. Bibliography: leaves 242-266. This thesis examines the effects on vegetation at selected sites in northern South Australia of excluding various herbivores over a four and a half year period and of two intense but controlled grazing pulses over a six month period followed by an 18 month recovery period in a dune-swale land system. These changes are compared with changes recorded over an 11-year period at the Olympic Dam mine site. It found that short-term changes in vegetation revealed by ordination of periodical cover, density and species richness, are attributable to the periodicity of rainfall and that, under present grazing regimes, rainfall effects override grazing effects. Differences between the effects of sheep and cattle hoof damage are worthy of further investigation, as is the impact of kangaroo grazing. These two factors may have important implications for the management of Australian rangelands. System requirements for accompanying CD-ROM: IBM compatible computer with Pentium processor or higher and Windows 95, 98 or NT ; 4 MB or RAM. Other software: Acrobat Adobe Reader.

Accompanying CD-ROM inside back cover, includes Appendices. / Bibliography: leaves 242-266. / System requirements for accompanying CD-ROM: IBM compatible computer with Pentium processor or higher and Windows 95, 98 or NT ; 4 MB or RAM. Other software: Acrobat Adobe Reader. / xv, 266 p. : maps, charts ; 30 cm. + 1 CD-ROM (4 3/4 in.) / Title page, contents and abstract only. The complete thesis in print form is available from the University Library. / This thesis examines the effects on vegetation at selected sites in northern South Australia of excluding various herbivores over a four and a half year period and of two intense but controlled grazing pulses over a six month period followed by an 18 month recovery period in a dune-swale land system. These changes are compared with changes recorded over an 11-year period at the Olympic Dam mine site. It found that short-term changes in vegetation revealed by ordination of periodical cover, density and species richness, are attributable to the periodicity of rainfall and that, under present grazing regimes, rainfall effects override grazing effects. Differences between the effects of sheep and cattle hoof damage are worthy of further investigation, as is the impact of kangaroo grazing. These two factors may have important implications for the management of Australian rangelands. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Adelaide, Dept. of Environmental Biology, 2002

This paper models the supply curve of carbon sequestration on Pacific Northwest rangelands. Rangeland managers have the ability to sequester carbon in agricultural soils by implementing alternative management practices on their farms. Their low adoption rate in practice suggests a high opportunity cost associated with their implementation. To increase their adoption, a payment for ecosystem services plan is proposed, where the public compensates farms for lost profits. The TOA-MD model is used to estimate the resulting sequestration incentivized by payments for soil carbon sequestration. Methodological questions of geographical stratification and estimating variation from available data are tested. Sensitivity analysis is also run on key assumptions in the study. Results show that while the economic potential of both systems is much lower than the technical potential, at reasonable CO��� payment levels rangeland sequestration could be a significant mitigation strategy for Pacific Northwest states. / Graduation date: 2012