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Une étude théorique et expérimentale de la convection de Rayleigh-Bénard pour un fluide non-Newtonien rhéofluidifiant a été effectuée. L’approche théorique consiste en une analyse linéaire et faiblement non linéaire de l’instabilité thermo-convective d’une couche horizontale d’un fluide non-Newtonien, d’étendue supposée infinie dans le plan horizontal, chauffée par le bas et refroidie par le haut. Le comportement rhéofluidifiant est décrit par le modèle de Carreau. Pour ce modèle, les conditions critiques d’instabilité du régime conductif sont les mêmes que pour un fluide Newtonien. L’objectif de l’analyse faiblement non linéaire consiste à déterminer d’une part la valeur critique du degré de rhéofluidification à partir duquel la bifurcation primaire devient sous critique et d’autre part l’influence de rhéofluidification sur la sélection du motif de convection au voisinage des conditions critiques, en tenant compte d’un éventuel glissement à la paroi, d’une conductivité thermique finie de celle-ci et de la thermodépendance de la viscosité. Les conséquences sur le champ de viscosité et l’évolution du nombre de Nusselt sont caractérisées. L’approche expérimentale consiste à visualiser par ombroscopie les motifs de convection qui se développent dans une cellule cylindrique. Deux rapports d’aspect ont été considérés : AR = 3 et AR = 4. Les fluides utilisés sont des solutions aqueuses de Xanthan à différentes concentrations. L’influence du degré de rhéofluidification combiné avec la thermodépendance de la viscosité sur le domaine de stabilité des rouleaux et des hexagones ainsi que sur la zone de transitions rouleaux hexagones est mise en évidence / Theoretical and experimental study of Rayleigh-Bénard convection in a non-Newtonian shear-thinning fluid was performed. The theoretical approach consists in a linear and a weakly nonlinear of thermo-convective instability in a horizontal layer of a non-Newtonian fluid, assumed infinite in extent, heated from below and cooled from above. The rheological behavior of the fluid is described by the Carreau model. For this rheological model, the critical threshold is the same as for a Newtonian fluid. The objective of the weakly non linear analysis is to determine on one hand the critical value of the shear-thinning degree above which the bifurcation becomes subcritical and on the other hand, the influence of shear-thinning effects on the pattern selection near the onset, taking into account the possibility of wall slip, a finite thermal conductivity of the walls as well as the thermo-dependency of the viscosity. The impact on the viscosity field and on the evolution of the Nusselt number are characterized. The experimental approach consists in visualizing the convection patterns using the shadowgraph method in a cylindrical cell. Two aspect ratios were considered : AR = 3 and AR = 4. The fluids used are aqueous solutions of xanthan-gum at different concentrations. The influence of shear-thinning effects combined with the thermo-dependency of the viscosity on the stability domain of rolls and hexagons as well as on the transition between rolls and hexagons is highlighted

L’objectif de cette thèse est de contribuer à la détection de défauts dans des pièces réalisées par le procédé de fabrication additive de déposition métallique par laser (DML), en vue d’un contrôle in situ. Le contrôle in situ envisagé porte sur les derniers cordons déposés par le procédé (acier 316L et Inconel 718), pour lesquels des porosités et fissures peuvent apparaître (~ 100 µm). L’inspection est effectuée par méthode ultrasons-laser (UL), c’est-à-dire tout optique et non intrusive (régime thermoélastique). Le procédé DML engendre une microstructure dite à gros grains et des rugosités de surface qui rendent le contrôle ultrasonore plus délicat. En effet, ces caractéristiques microstructurales provoquent la diffusion des ondes élastiques dans le milieu. Ce travail de thèse participe donc à la compréhension de ces phénomènes et de leurs influences pour mieux détecter des défauts subsurfaciques dont les dimensions sont proches des longueurs d’ondes acoustiques. Ainsi, l’inspection en surface a été optimisée par la conception d’un montage optique, permettant de favoriser la génération de l’onde de Rayleigh, par une ligne source laser fine (~200 µm) et présentant des fronts raides. En conséquence, le contenu spectral de l’onde a été augmenté vers les hautes fréquences, c’est-à-dire jusqu’à 10 MHz. La longueur d’onde de Rayleigh (λR) a pu être ainsi diminuée à une valeur proche de celle des défauts recherchés, de l’ordre de 700 µm. Ensuite, les limites de ce dispositif ont été mises en évidence sur des pièces fabriquées par le procédé DML. Ces pièces comportent des défauts usinés, des entailles et des trous génératrice dont les dimensions sont inférieures à λR, leur surfaces est rugueuse (diffraction multiple de l’onde de Rayleigh). Puis, l’inspection de défauts réels subsurfaciques est étudiée. Ces défauts sont créés soit par une variation d’un des paramètres du procédé, le hatch (distance inter-cordon), ou encore par l’utilisation d’une poudre métallique de mauvaise qualité. En dégradant volontairement ces paramètres, les échantillons présentent alors des taux de porosités (Φ) pouvant s’étendre de 0,5% à 10%. Enfin, deux méthodes de corrélations ont été exploitées pour discriminer les taux de porosités : à travers l’étude du degré de ressemblance et l’Analyse en Composantes Principales (ACP). La première méthode, simple et rapide à mettre en œuvre, ne permet cependant pas de distinguer les taux de porosités. En revanche, l’ACP indique qu’il est possible de discriminer tous les défauts. Pour finir, des tests préliminaires ont été effectués afin de montrer qu’il est possible d’effectuer des mesures par méthode UL sur surface rugueuse, tout en conservant un bon rapport signal sur bruit, et ce sans moyenner les signaux, au cours d’un déplacement robotisé. / This thesis contributes to the detection of flaws in laser metal deposition (LMD) additive manufacturing process samples towards an in situ control of the process. The in situ control foreseen concerns the last layers deposited by the process (316L and Inconel 718 steel) for which porosities and cracks may appear (~ 100 µm). The inspection is performed by laser-ultrasonics (LU), an all-optical and non-invasive technic. Experiments are conducted in thermoelastic mode. The LMD process gives rise to coarse grain microstructure and surface roughness, that make the control tricky. Indeed, those characteristics generate scattering elastic waves. Thus, this work contributes to the better comprehension of those phenomena and their effects of the detection on subsurface flaws which dimensions are close to the acoustic wavelength. Surface inspection has been optimized by designing an optical setup, improving the Rayleigh wave generation by using a thin laser line source (~200 µm). Hence, the spectral content has been increased until it reaches 10 MHz, that is to say a wavelength equals to 700 µm (λR). Then, the limits have been brought out through the inspection of LMD samples. Those samples include sided drilled holes and notches which dimensions are less than λR, on rough surface (multiple scattering of Rayleigh wave). Moreover, real subsurface flaws inspections have been studied. The flaws have been created by the instability of one of the process parameter: the hatch (distance between each layer), or by a bad powder quality. By intentionally deteriorating those parameters, the samples, then, have porosity rate (Φ) with ranging from 0.5% to 10%. Finally, two correlation methods have been studied to discriminate porosity rate: through the study of the normalized cross correlation function and by Principal Component Analysis (PCA). The first method, simple and fast to implement, does not allow distinguishing the porosity rates. Nevertheless, the PCA indicates that it is possible to discriminate all the flaws. Finally, preliminary tests have been carried out to show that LU measurements is feasible on rough surfaces, while keeping a good signal-to-noise ratio, without averaging, during an automated displacement.

L'aléa sismique d'un site donné peut être largement influencé par des effets de site. Afin d'évaluer ces effets, la structure locale du sous-sol ainsi que les propriétés du champ d'onde doivent être étudiées. Les ondes de surface (ondes de Love et de Rayleigh) s'avèrent utiles, leurs propriétés (courbes de dispersion, ellipticité des ondes de Rayleigh) étant directement liées à la structure du sous-sol. Le paramètre clé pour l'identification du type d'onde est la polarisation. Dans la première partie de la thèse, de nouvelles méthodes pour l'estimation de paramètres de polarisation d'ondes de surface sont développées. Deux méthodes, DELFI et RayDec, estiment l'ellipticité des ondes de Rayleigh à partir d'enregistrements d'un seul capteur sismique. La troisième méthode, MUSIQUE, est basée sur la méthode MUSIC et utilise les enregistrements multi-composantes de réseaux sismiques afin de distinguer ondes de Love et ondes de Rayleigh et d'estimer leurs propriétés. Dans la deuxième partie de la thèse, une étude théorique de l'inversion de courbes d'ellipticité montre quelles parties de ces courbes véhiculent les informations importantes sur la structure du sol et comment l'inversion peut être améliorée. Le schéma d'inversion résultant est alors testé en l'appliquant à des données réelles mesurées pour 14 sites européens. Finalement, 22 séismes enregistrés par un réseau de capteurs dans la vallée de Santa Clara en Californie sont analysés par MUSIQUE. La répartition azimutale, les courbes de dispersion, la courbe d'ellipticité et les énergies des différents types d'ondes sont analysées et soulignent l'importance des ondes de surface diffractées dans le champ d'ondes enregistré. / The seismic hazard of a given site can be largely influenced by site effects. In order to estimate these effects, the local soil structure and the wave field properties have to be investigated. This can be done using surface waves (Love and Rayleigh waves) since their properties (dispersion curves, Rayleigh wave ellipticity) are closely linked to the soil structure. The key parameter for the correct wave type identification is the polarization. In a first part of this thesis, three new methods to estimate the polarization parameters of surface waves have been developed. Two methods, DELFI and RayDec, estimate the Rayleigh wave ellipticity using the recordings of a single seismic station. The third method, MUSIQUE, is a further developed version of the MUSIC algorithm, and uses seismic array recordings to discriminate between Love and Rayleigh waves and estimate their respective properties. In the second part of the thesis, a theoretical investigation of the inversion of ellipticity curves shows which parts of an ellipticity curve carry the important information on the soil structure and by which means the inversion can be disambiguated. The developed inversion scheme is then tested on real data measurements obtained at 14 different European sites. Finally, the seismological wave field in the Californian Santa Clara valley is investigated applying MUSIQUE to seismic array recordings for 22 earthquakes. The azimuthal energy repartition between the different wave types is investigated and the respective dispersion curves as well as the Rayleigh wave ellipticity curve are estimated. This study outlines the importance of diffracted surface waves in the recorded wave field. STAR

La thèse s'inscrit dans un axe de recherche visant à améliorer les connaissances et prédictions des chargements hydrodynamiques subis par les réservoirs de carburant lors d'impacts balistiques (coup de bélier hydrodynamique) pour améliorer la survivabilité de la structure. Les modèles numériques les plus avancés ne permettent toujours pas de simuler le phénomène complet. De plus les modèles développés sont trop coûteux pour être utilisés lors d'optimisations de réservoirs durant la phase de conception. L'étude proposée consiste à développer un modèle analytique capable de simuler la séquence d'expansion et d'effondrement de la bulle de cavitation et d'utiliser ce modèle pour déterminer les paramètres influant sur les chargements hydrodynamiques lors de coups de bélier hydrodynamiques. La problématique du phénomène de coup de bélier hydrodynamique et l'état de l'art sont présentés dans le premier chapitre du mémoire. Dans le deuxième chapitre, le modèle de Rayleigh-Plesset est modifié pour prendre en compte l'effet de confinement d'un réservoir sphérique sur la dynamique d'expansion de la bulle en négligeant la présence du gaz dans la cavité dans les prédictions des chargements hydrodynamiques. Ce modèle a été appliqué à des cas expérimentaux de coup de bélier, en calibrant un paramètre de confinement lié à la rigidité de la structure. L'étape suivante, présentée dans le troisième chapitre, consiste à évaluer la capacité d'un modèle analytique linéaire élastique (de type plaque) à estimer la valeur du paramètre de confinement. Un bon accord est trouvé entre cette valeur et celle calibrée précédemment, ce qui valide la méthode d'estimation de ce paramètre et supprime la nécessite de la calibration expérimentale. Dans le quatrième chapitre le modèle incompressible de Rayleigh-Plesset est comparé à des simulations explicites éléments finis pour déterminer les effets de l'inertie de la structure et de la compressibilité du liquide sur la dynamique des bulles confinées. Enfin dans le cinquième chapitre un modèle analytique de dynamique de bulles confinées, dans un liquide compressible, est développé et validé. Pour cela une formulation basée sur l'équation de Keller-Miksis est proposée. La pertinence de ce modèle est vérifiée puis il est validé par rapport à des simulations éléments finis, ce qui permet d'estimer l'amélioration apportée par le modèle de Keller-Miksis dans la prédiction des chargements hydrodynamiques par comparaison au modèle de Rayleigh-Plesset. Finalement une analyse critique du travail de thèse et des perspectives sont données. / The context of the thesis consists of improving the knowledge and the predictions of hydrodynamic loads applied on fuel tanks during ballistic impacts (Hydrodynamic Ram) to improve the survivability of aircraft structures. The most advanced numerical models still cannot simulate the entire phenomenon. Moreover, these models are too expensive to be used for optimisation or for design purposes during the tank development stage. The proposed study consists of developing an analytical model capable of simulating the expansion and collapse of the cavitation bubble and to use it to determine the parameters that influence the consecutive hydrodynamic loads. The state of the art hydrodynamic ram problem is first presented. In the second chapter, the Rayleigh-Plesset model is modified to include the stiffness effect of a spherical container on the described bubble dynamics, when neglecting the presence of the bubble gas on the hydrodynamic loads. This model is applied to hydrodynamic ram test cases, by calibrating a confinement parameter which is related to the structure rigidity. The next step, presented in the third chapter evaluates the capacity of an elastic linear analytical model (plate formulae) to provide the value of the confinement parameter. A good agreement is found with the calibrated value in the previous chapter, which validates the method to get this parameter and suppress the need for experimental calibration. In the fourth chapter, the incompressible Rayleigh-Plesset model is compared to explicit finite element simulations to determine the influence of the liquid compressibility and structural inertia on the dynamics of confined bubbles. Then, in the fifth chapter an analytical model for confined bubbles in a compressible liquid is developed. A formulation based on the Keller-Miksis model is proposed. The relevance of this model is verified and it is validated again with respect to finite element simulations. Then the improvement of hydrodynamic loads predictions using this model is estimated by comparison with the Rayleigh-Plesset model. Finality a critical analysis of the thesis work and some outlooks are given.

La sismique pétrolière est un domaine d'innovation continue depuis plus d'un siècle. Une part non négligeable des études concerne la séparation des différentes ondes se propageant dans le milieu exploré, en particulier les ondes de surface. A petite profondeur, les ondes de surfaces servent à la tomographie. Bien les connaître et les modéliser permet d'imager la proche surface. Quand la prospection est tournée vers les grandes profondeurs – soit 95% de l'industrie géophysique - ces ondes masquent les ondes de volume qui contiennent les informations sur les couches profondes. Il est donc fondamental de pouvoir s'en affranchir et l'étape de séparation est des plus importantes. Les ondes de surface peuvent cependant être utilisées pour une meilleure connaissance de la proche surface, ce qui permet d'en déduire après coup des paramètres utilisables pour améliorer l'imagerie en profondeur. La recherche s'est renouvelée dans ce domaine du fait de l'impulsion récente donnée par l'imagerie sismique passive à partir du bruit sismique ambiant ou la mise en place de nouvelles géométries d'acquisition. En parallèle, l'étude des champs pétroliers existants pour une meilleure exploitation tend à se développer dans l'industrie. La maîtrise de l'imagerie 4D (3 dimensions d'espace + le temps, appliqués à la surveillance de réservoir) devient dès lors une activité clé pour la recherche dans laquelle les variations des paramètres du sous-sol sont estimées. Le travail de thèse réalisé est issu des constatations suivantes : - En dépit de travaux très riches, les ondes de surface représentent encore un sujet d'investigation important en exploration géophysique. - Les expérimentations à l'échelle du laboratoire restent relativement peu usitées en géophysiques, en particuliers pour des études impliquant un grand nombre de points de mesure. La première partie de la thèse a permis de valider un environnement de laboratoire adapté à l'étude des ondes de surfaces, en particulier la mise en évidence d'un mélange « ondes de surface – ondes de volume » analogue à celui rencontré lors d' acquisitions terrestres. Ceci a pu être réalisé grâce à des gels d'Agar-agar de forte densité et la mise en place d'une chaine d'acquisition automatisée impliquant des réseaux de sources et de récepteurs denses. Une deuxième partie a permis de séparer les ondes de surface et les ondes de volume à l'aide de traitement d'antennes. Après séparation des ondes, il devient possible de suivre leurs variations de temps d'arrivées en présence de modification du milieu en surface et/ou en profondeur comme dans le cas d'une surveillance de réservoir en sismique pétrolière (4D). Une étude 4D complète a donc été réalisée, permettant de suivre non seulement les variations de temps d'arrivées mais également d'amplitude et de directions de départ et d'arrivées des ondes. Une méthode pour compenser les variations de vitesses parasites de la proche surface à été développée. Cette étude a été complétée par une étude issue de données terrains. Les profils de vitesse rencontrés sur le terrain font état de vitesses relativement faibles en surface. La conséquence en est que les différentes ondes de volume issues de la profondeur arrivent avec des angles d'incidences faibles et voisins les uns des autres. Les méthodes classiques de séparation d'ondes étant souvent inefficaces à ces angles, un chapitre a été consacré à l'étude des algorithmes de haute résolution dans le cadre de l'exploration sismique. Enfin, en tirant partie de la haute densité spatiale de points d'acquisitions rendue possible par l'environnement mise en place, une étude comparée de deux dispositifs - l'un théoriquement idéal mais peu réaliste et l'autre économiquement viable sur le terrain mais moins efficace - a permis de s'attaquer au problème des ondes réfléchies sur des diffractants en surface qui perturbent beaucoup les acquisitions actuelles. Une nouvelle solution de filtrage a été proposée pour le deuxième cas. / Seismic exploration is a continuous innovation domain since more than one century. A significant part of the studies consists in separating the various waves propagating in the medium, especially surface waves. In the near-surface, surface waves are useful for tomography. Near-surface imaging becomes possible if they are well modelised. When exploration is dedicated to depth – meaning more than 95% of the seismic exploration business – the surface waves mainly hide body waves, which contains the informations related to the depth. Body and surface wave separation then becomes a fundamental task. In these situations, the surface waves can nevertheless be used to better know the near surface. It allows computing parameters usable to better the depth imaging. Research knew recent developments in this domain due to the recent impulsion given by the passive seismic imaging from ambient noise and the study of new acquisition designs with high spatial density. In parallel, the oil fields study for better exploitation is growing as a new industrial development axis. 4D (i.e. 3 spatial dilensions + time) imaging mastering becomes a key research activity, in which sub-surface parameters are estimated and monitored. This PhD thesis comes from the following remarks: - Despite rich works, surface waves are still an important research issue in seismic exploration. - Laboratory scale experiments know relatively few investigations, especially for high density acquisition design. The first step has been dedicated to the set up and the validation of a complete acquisition environment in the laboratory, adapted to surface wave study and high spatial density. Using Agar-agar phantoms, a mix of S body waves and Rayleigh surface waves comparable to the on-field P body waves and Rayleigh wave mix has been highlighted. Then, using array processing, wave separation has benne successfully demonstrated. After waves separation, it becomes possible to follow their arrival time variation in presence of surface and/or depth variation in the medium, as in reservoir monitoring conditions. A complete 4D study has been performed, allowing not only the arrival time monitoring but also amplitude and arrival and launch directions. A method has been proposed to compensate the near-surface spurious variations. An adaptation of the method on a field data set is then performed. Generally, velocity profiles on the field show weak velocities in the sub-surface. As a consequence, the various waves coming from the depth have weak and comparable incidences angles. Classical separation method using array processing are usually insufficient to work with such incidence angles set. For this reason, a complete part of this work has been dedicated to the study of high resolution algorithms in the frame of seismic exploration and their adaptation. At the end, taking advantage of the high spatial density allowed by the laboratory environment, a comparative study of two designs – the first one theoretically ideal but somewhat unrealistic and the second one more viable economically but less efficient – has been performed to address the scattered waves filtering issue. For the second design, a new filtering method has been proposed to enhance the scattered waves filtering.

A utilização de laser para estudo, análise e caracterização de materiais é de imensa importância no desenvolvimento e progresso da ciência e tecnologia, melhorando ciclicamente a área de ótica não linear (ONL). Estudos do comportamento de compostos orgânicos cujas estruturas são π conjugadas mostram sua ampla aplicabilidade em dispositivos eletrônicos e na área medicinal. A adição de grupos laterias doadores ou aceitadores de elétrons têm a capacidade de aumentar os efeitos ópticos não lineares nestes compostos, otimizando suas propriedades. Nesta dissertação de mestrado, foram realizados estudos em compostos orgânicos focados em suas características ópticas não lineares. Nove derivados de chalconas e quatro derivados de azometinas foram analisadas através da técnica de espalhamento hiper-Rayleigh (HRS) e da técnica de varredura-z, cujos efeitos óticos não lineares observados correspondem à segunda e terceira ordem da polarizabilidade, respectivamente. Com o espalhamento hiper-Rayleigh, foram determinadas a primeira hiperpolarizabilidade βHRS cujo valor mais alto foi 24×10−30 cm5/esu para as chalconas e 273×10−30 cm5/esu para as azometinas. A técnica de varredura-z foi utilizada para determinar o espectro da seção de choque de absorção de dois fótons (σ2PA) cujos valores de pico das moléculas derivadas de chalconas são de aproximadamente 15 GM e algumas apresentaram estados excitados que são permitidos apenas por absorção de dois fótons. Duas das moléculas derivadas de azometinas apresentaram valores de pico da ordem de 12 GM, uma não apresentou absorção de dois fótons e uma apresentou valor de pico de 55 GM. Além disso, foi utilizado o método de Soma-Sobre-Estados (SOS - do inglês Sum-Over-States) para determinar os momentos de dipolo de transição e diferença de momentos de dipolo permanente de todos os derivados. / The use of lasers for study, analyses and characterization of materials are of great importance for progress and development of science and technology, improving in a cyclic way the nonlinear optics area (NLO). Studies of the behave of π-conjugated organic compounds show its wide applicability in electronic devices and in the medicinal area. Adding electron donor or acceptor lateral groups to these compounds may alter its nonlinear optical effects, optimizing its properties. In this Master dissertation, studies on organic compounds focused in its nonlinear optical characteristics were realized. Nine chalcone derivatives and four azomethines derivatives were analyzed using the Hyper-Rayleigh Scattering technique (HRS) and Z-Scan technique, by which the nonlinear optical effects observed corresponds to the second and third order of the polarizabilities, respectively. With the HRS the first hyperpolarizability βHRS was determined, which the highest values was of 24×10−30 cm5/esu for the chalcones, and 273×10−30 cm5/esu for the azomethines. The Z-Scan technique was utilized for determining the two-photon cross-section σ2PA which peak values of the chalcone derivatives were of approximately 15 GM and some of them presented excited states that are only allowed by two-photon absorption. Two of the azomethines derivatives molecules presented peak values of the order of 12 GM, one of them did not present two-photon absorption, and one presented peak value of 55 GM. Furthermore, the Sum-Over-States (SOS) method was used to determine the transition dipole momentums and the difference of permanent dipole momentum of all of the derivatives.

Um material composto, formado pela mistura de muitos elementos, pode ser convenientemente descrito, a partir da forma com que a radiação interage com ele, como se fosse formado por um elemento ctício com um número atômico efetivo, Zef. Esse parâmetro não é constante com a energia, entretanto, pode ser considerado uma ferramenta útil na caracterização de tecidos biológicos, materiais tecido-equivalentes e dosímetros. Várias formas de determinação do Zef foram propostas na literatura, dentre elas, estão os métodos de atenuação que se baseiam no uso da seção de choque total (obtido a partir do coeciente de atenuação linear mássico (µ/)) e os métodos de espalhamento que se baseiam na razão entre as seções de choque diferenciais Rayleigh e Compton. Neste trabalho, buscou-se estudar métodos de obter Zef de forma experimental e teórica, por dois métodos (atenuação e espalhamento) para completar lacunas existentes na literatura. No método de atenuação, foi utilizado o (µ/) como grandeza de interação que, no conhecimento dos autores, ainda não foi utilizado. Para isso, arranjos experimentais que permitam determinar a densidade, , e o coeciente de atenuação linear, µ, foi construído. O µ (de materiais tecido-equivalentes e tecidos biológicos) foi determinado tanto para energia de 59.54 keV (fonte 241Am) com detector CdTe, quanto para faixa de energia entre 15 e 45 keV (tubo de raios X com alvo de W) com detector SDD. Um novo programa computacional para determinar o número atômico efetivo a partir do µ/ foi implementado e validado. A sensibilidade do método foi estudada de forma a determinar Zef de forma adequada. No método de espalhamento, arranjo experimental para detectar os fótons espalhados Rayleigh e Compton (utilizando fonte de 241Am e detector CdTe) foi construído, otimizado e validado. Um programa computacional para determinação de Zef através da razão Rayleigh/Compton, R/C, foi elaborado e validado . A sensibilidade do método foi estudada e analisada de forma a determinar Zef de maneira adequada. No método de atenuação, o arranjos para determinação do µ/ possibilitaram determiná-lo com diferenças menores que 6% quando comparados com a literatura e incertezas de 3.8% para 59.54 keV e até 7% na faixa de 15 à 45 keV. Também foi vericado que o método é adequado para determinar Zef para energias de até 60 keV, pois a partir deste valor, as incertezas em Zef aumentam (para mais de 10%). No método de espalhamento, o arranjo para determinação da razão Rayleigh/Compton possibilitaram obter medidas de R/C com menos de 10% de diferença com a literatura e incertezas de 7% e foi vericado ainda, que a faixa de momento transferido entre 1 Å1 e 2 Å1 é adequada para determinar Zef (incertezas menores que 3% de incerteza) / A composite material, formed by the mixture of several elements, can be conveniently described by, from the way the radiation interacts with it, as if it were formed by a factitious element with an eective atomic number (Zef). This parameter is not constant with the energy, however, can be considered as an useful tool for characterization of biological tissues, tissue-equivalent materials and dosimeters. Several ways for the determination of Zef were proposed by the literature, among them, are the attenuation methods which are based on the total cross section (derived form the mass attenuation coecient (µ/)) and the scatter methods which are based on the ratio between the Rayleigh and Compton dierential cross sections. In this work, were study ways to obtain Zef experimentally and theoretically by two methods (attenuation and scattering) to ll the gaps in the literature. In the attenuation method µ/ was used as interaction coecient which, in the authors knowledge, it hasnt been used. For this purpose, experimental arrangements to determine the density () and the linear attenuation coecient (µ) were built. The µ (of tissue-equivalent material and biological tissues) were determined both for 59.54 keV (241Am source) with a CdTe detector and for the energy rage between 15 and 45 keV (X ray tube, W target) with a SDD detector. A new computational program for determining Zef through µ/ was implemented and validated. The method sensibility was studied in the way to determine Zef properly. In the scattering method, an experimental arrangement to detect the Rayleigh and Compton scattered photons (with 241Am source and a CdTe detector) was built, optimized and validated. A computational program to determine Zef through Rayleigh to Compton ratio, R/C, was elaborated and validated. The methods sensibility was studied and analyzed to determine Zef properly. In the attenuation method, the arrangements for determining µ/ allowed to determine it with dierences smaller than 6% when compared with the literature and uncertainties of 3.8% for 59.54 keV and up to 7% in the range of 15 to 45 keV. It has also been found that the method is suitable for determining Zef for energies of up to 60 keV, because above that energy, the uncertainties in Zef increases (more than 10%). In the scattering method, the arrangement for determining R/C made it possible to obtain measurements of R/C with less than 10% dierence with the literature and uncertainties of 7% and it was veried that the momentum transfer range between 1 Å1 and 2 Å1 is suitable for determining Zef (uncertainties less than 3 % uncertainty)

Este trabalho teve como objetivo a realização de um estudo sobre o método MASW (Análise Multicanal de Ondas de Superfície) avaliando-se comparativamente resultados obtidos por diferentes fontes (ativas e passivas), ondas Rayleigh e Love e diferentes modos de propagação das ondas de superfície. Dois ensaios sísmicos foram executados: com geometria de aquisição bidimensional e geofones triaxiais de 10Hz, e com geometria linear e geofones de componente vertical de 4,5Hz. Foram realizados estudos com as fontes marreta, compactador de solo, ruído ambiental e com o tráfego de veículos, a última através da técnica Passive Roadside MASW. Resultados de inversões com dados da componente vertical (ondas Rayleigh) das ondas de superfície foram avaliados com os de inversões conjuntas com a componente radial (ondas Rayleigh) e transversal (ondas Love). Analisou-se também os produtos de inversões da curva de dispersão do modo fundamental com os de inversões conjuntas com o primeiro modo superior. Os estudos foram realizados em frente ao Instituto de Astronomia, Geofísica e Ciência Atmosféricas (IAG) localizado no interior do campus Cidade Universitária Armando de Salles Oliveira (CUASO) da Universidade de São Paulo (USP) no bairro do Butantã, São Paulo. A área de estudo possui informações de sondagem mista com descrição geológica do material e valores SPT (Standard Penetration Test) que foram utilizados para validação dos resultados. O compactador de solo demonstrou ser uma melhor fonte ativa em relação a marreta através de diferentes aspectos: geração de maior energia tanto na componente vertical quanto na transversal; espectros (V,f) de melhor qualidade; os dados apresentam a vantagem de poderem ser processados através da técnica f-k beamforming. A aquisição com o ruído ambiental não possibilitou a interpretação de curvas de dispersão devido ao pouco tempo de aquisição utilizado. Os dados obtidos pela técnica Passive Roadside MASW contribuíram com os dados de ativa através do registro de frequências mais baixas. Além disso, devido a clara identificação do 1° modo superior em seu espectro (V,f) foi possível a identificação do mesmo modo no espectro (V,f) dos dados de ativa, interpretação até então duvidosa. No entanto, a inversão conjunta das curvas de dispersão dos dados Passive Roadside com as dos dados de ativa não resultou em uma melhor inversão comparada com a inversão obtida apenas pelas curvas de ativa. A inversão conjunta de curvas das componentes radial (ondas Rayleigh) e transversal (ondas Love) com as curvas obtidas da componente vertical (ondas Rayleigh) também não trouxe um melhor resultado quando comparada com a inversão alcançada apenas com as curvas da componente vertical. A utilização do primeiro modo superior com o modo fundamental, no entanto, mostrou trazer melhoras significativas nos resultados das inversões em comparação com inversões apenas da curva do modo fundamental. Considerando as incertezas envolvidas os melhores resultados deste trabalho são convergentes com os dados de sondagem da área de estudo. No atual estágio de desenvolvimento do método MASW diversas etapas são bastante dependentes do operador. Neste sentido os estudos realizados neste trabalho contribuem para um melhor entendimento do método nos seus fundamentos, parâmetros de aquisição e processamento. / This work aim to study the MASW (Multichannel Analysis of Surface Waves) method by comparing results obtained with different sources (active and passive), Rayleigh and Love waves and different modes of surface waves propagation. Two seismic tests were performed: one with two-dimensional acquisition geometry and 10Hz triaxial geophones, and the other with linear geometry and 4.5 Hz vertical component geophones. Studies were carried out with the following sources: sledgehammer, rammer compactor, ambient noise and vehicular traffic, the last through the Passive Roadside MASW technique. Inversions results with vertical component data (Rayleigh waves) were evaluated through joint inversions with the radial (Rayleigh waves) and transversal (Love waves) components. It were also analyzed the inversions results of the fundamental mode of the dispersion curve with the results of joint inversions with the first higher mode. The studies were carried out in front of the Instituto de Astronomia, Geofísica e Ciência Atmosféricas (IAG) (Institute of Astronomy, Geophysics and Atmospheric Science) located inside the university campus Cidade Universitária Armando de Salles Oliveira (CUASO) of Universidade de São Paulo (USP) (University of São Paulo) in the neighborhood of Butantã, São Paulo. The study area has information with a geological material description and SPT (Standard Penetration Test) values that were used to validate the results. The rammer compactor showed to be a better active source in relation to sledgehammer through different aspects: generation of greater energy in vertical and transverse components; better quality of (V,f) spectrum; the data have the advantage that they can be processed using the f-k beamforming technique. The acquisition with ambient noise did not allow the dispersion curves interpretation due to the short acquisition time used. Passive Roadside MASW data contributed to the active data through the lower frequency. Besides that, due to the clear identification of the 1st higher mode in its (V,f) spectrum it was possible to identify the same mode in the (V,f) spectrum of the active data, interpretation that was, until then, doubtful. However, the joint inversion of the Passive Roadside dispersion curves with the active curves did not produce better results compared to the inversion obtained only by the active curves. The joint inversion of dispersion curves from radial (Rayleigh) and transversal (Love waves) components with the curves obtained by the vertical component (Rayleigh waves) also did not bring a better result when compared with the inversion achieved only by the vertical component curves. The use of the first higher mode with the fundamental mode, however, showed significant improvements in the joint inversions results compared to inversions only of the fundamental mode curve. Considering the uncertainties involved, the best results of this work converge with the a priori information of the study area. At the current MASW method stage of development, several steps are quite dependent on the operator. Therefore, the studies carried out in this work contribute to a better understanding of the method in its fundamentals, acquisition parameters and processing.

Dans ces travaux , nous avons deux principaux objectifs physique et numérique. Le problème physique consiste à trouver la solution de Rayleigh-Bénard pour des fluides newtoniens et non-newtoniens. Dans la présente étude, une présentation générale des résultats de la convection de Rayleigh-Bénard (RBC) est donnée dans le cas des fluides newtoniens et non-newtoniens tels que des fluides rhéofluidifiants modélisés par la loi puissance et des fluides viscoplastiques (fluides de Bingham, Herschel-Bulkley et Casson), en régime permanent et transitoire. Dans le cas des fluides viscoplastiques, les modèles macroscopiques ne prenant pas bien en compte la réalité physique de la contrainte seuil ont fait l'objet d'une modélisation. Un modèle mesoscopique proposé par Hébraud et Lequeux a été utilisé. Le problème numérique consiste à développer la méthode de résolution PGD (Proper Generalized Decomposition) pour résoudre les modèles non linéaires couplés transitoires, dans le cas du problème de Rayleigh-Bénard. Cette méthode est également utilisée pour résoudre le problème RBC paramétrique en y ajoutant quelques variables physiques comme coordonnées supplémentaires. Par ailleurs, dans le cas des fluides non-newtoniens, nous avons utilisé la PGD pour résoudre les équations mesoscopiques et macroscopiques couplées. / In this research work we are looking for two main physical and numerical purposes. The physical problem is to find the solution of Rayleigh Bénard convection for several conditions dependent on fluid thermo-physical properties such as temperature, viscosity and initial and boundary conditions. Continuing previous research works in this study we have provided the results of Rayleigh Bénard convection for Newtonian, Power-law and viscoplastic fluids (Bingham, Herschel-Bulkley and Casson) and for steady state and transient conditions. We also solve this problem for Nano and soft glassy materials. In some cases the results are interesting not only as a part of the Rayleigh Bénard convection analysis but also on a larger scale as a part of the heat transfer and mechanical fluid analysis such as viscoplastic and soft glassy material studies. Numerically, it was interesting to develop Proper Generalized Decomposition (PGD) method for solving transient coupled non-linear models, in particular the one related to the Rayleigh–Bénard flow. This model also was used to solve RBC problem parametrically by adding some physical properties as extra coordinates. For soft glassy material we used PGD to connect micro and macro equations together.