Eskom provides 98% of South Africa’s ever increasing electricity demand. The mining sector is a vital contributor to the economy, but also consumes vast amounts of electricity. This sector is responsible for almost 15% of the country’s electricity usage. Mines heavily depend on the supply of cold water and air. Refrigeration systems are therefore constantly operational and can account for 25% of a mine’s electricity costs. The need therefore exists to investigate possible energy savings initiatives. Refrigeration systems are typically used to lower the temperature of water and air. Bulk Air Coolers (BACs) are used to produce cold air. The aim of this study is to investigate possible electricity cost savings in a mine refrigeration system. This can be achieved by enabling equipment to dynamically adapt to changes in their environment. Electricity usage reduction has the greatest financial impact if it occurs during Eskom peak periods. Time-dependent schedules of operation are therefore used to achieve this objective. Due to the lack of such a controller in the mining industry, the focus of this study is a BAC control system. A BAC controller would be able to follow guidelines that could lead to electricity cost savings. It was therefore developed and incorporated in the Real-time Energy Management System (REMS). The BAC controller combines various inputs and constraints to determine the output. An electricity usage reduction during the Eskom evening peak period was consequently achieved. The BAC controller was implemented on three sites. Electrical energy usage during the evening peak period was reduced via the load shifting method. This aids Eskom in their effort to reduce the peak period demand. Air temperature and dam levels were closely monitored during the peak period. If any preset condition was violated, the load shifting was abandoned for that day. It was shown that a total power reduction of 7 MW is possible between the three sites. The electricity savings occurred in the evening peak period. A calculation was made to determine the possible annual savings by using the achieved daily cost savings. The winter months were not included in the calculation. An annual cost saving of R1 166 694.41 is therefore possible without having to reduce output quantities. / MIng(Computer and Electronic Engineering), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

Eskom provides 98% of South Africa’s ever increasing electricity demand. The mining sector is a vital contributor to the economy, but also consumes vast amounts of electricity. This sector is responsible for almost 15% of the country’s electricity usage. Mines heavily depend on the supply of cold water and air. Refrigeration systems are therefore constantly operational and can account for 25% of a mine’s electricity costs. The need therefore exists to investigate possible energy savings initiatives. Refrigeration systems are typically used to lower the temperature of water and air. Bulk Air Coolers (BACs) are used to produce cold air. The aim of this study is to investigate possible electricity cost savings in a mine refrigeration system. This can be achieved by enabling equipment to dynamically adapt to changes in their environment. Electricity usage reduction has the greatest financial impact if it occurs during Eskom peak periods. Time-dependent schedules of operation are therefore used to achieve this objective. Due to the lack of such a controller in the mining industry, the focus of this study is a BAC control system. A BAC controller would be able to follow guidelines that could lead to electricity cost savings. It was therefore developed and incorporated in the Real-time Energy Management System (REMS). The BAC controller combines various inputs and constraints to determine the output. An electricity usage reduction during the Eskom evening peak period was consequently achieved. The BAC controller was implemented on three sites. Electrical energy usage during the evening peak period was reduced via the load shifting method. This aids Eskom in their effort to reduce the peak period demand. Air temperature and dam levels were closely monitored during the peak period. If any preset condition was violated, the load shifting was abandoned for that day. It was shown that a total power reduction of 7 MW is possible between the three sites. The electricity savings occurred in the evening peak period. A calculation was made to determine the possible annual savings by using the achieved daily cost savings. The winter months were not included in the calculation. An annual cost saving of R1 166 694.41 is therefore possible without having to reduce output quantities. / MIng(Computer and Electronic Engineering), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

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A presente se tese desenvolve uma metodologia para comparar as substâncias emitidas na construção e operação de sistema frigorífico por absorção e por compressão de vapor de amônia usando a metodologia denominada Análise do Ciclo de Vida (ACV). Pesquisas bibliográficas feitas pelo autor desse trabalho permitem a conclusão de haver poucas informações que permitam a elaboração de um inventário de ciclo de vida para ciclo frigorífico por absorção e por compressão de vapor tendo como fluido de trabalho a amônia. Realizado todo o dimensionamento termodinâmico e mecânico dos ciclos e aplicada a metodologia ACV, os resultados demonstram que a operação do ciclo frigorífico por compressão produz 626,91% mais de hidrocarbonetos quando comparada com a quantidade emitida devido a construção. Demonstram ainda que as substâncias emitidas são diferentes para o ciclo por absorção e para o por compressão de vapor de amônia. / This thesis proposes to develop a way to compare the substances emitted in the construction and operation of a refrigeration cycle by absorption and compression of vapor ammonia using the methodology called Life Cycle Analysis (ACV). Bibliographic researches made by the author of this study suggest there is little information to allow the construction of an inventory of the life cycle to a refrigeration systems. Carried out all the thermodynamic and mechanical design cycles and applied the ACV methodology, the results demonstrate that the operation of the compression cycle produce 626,91% more hydrocarbon in comparison with the construction. The results shows that the substances emitted by absorption or compression cycle are different.

CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeÃoamento de Pessoal de NÃvel Superior / A busca por novos sistemas de refrigeraÃÃo vem se tornando o alvo de estudo de diversos pesquisadores, com o objetivo de diminuir impactos ambientais referentes à destruiÃÃo da camada de ozÃnio e efeito estufa que trazem consigo diversos malefÃcios à vida no planeta. Sistemas de refrigeraÃÃo convencionais respondem por boa parte do consumo de energia elÃtrica de uma residÃncia ou uma empresa (de 20 ou atà 25%), e sÃo normalmente ligados durante o dia , quando a demanda à maior e as tarifas mais caras. Dispositivos de refrigeraÃÃo sÃo indispensÃveis nas atividades humanas, como conservaÃÃo de alimentos, medicamentos, etc. Sistemas fotovoltaicos sÃo fontes de energia elÃtrica confiÃveis e independentes. Por essas razÃes, atualmente, hà um aumento no uso de sistemas de refrigeraÃÃo acionados por energia solar fotovoltaica nas zonas rurais. Tubos de Ranque-Hilsch ou tubos de vÃrtice sÃo geralmente utilizados para refrigeraÃÃo local de baixo custo, onde hà a disponibilidade de ar comprimido. Nesse trabalho, um tubo de vÃrtice foi concebido, testado e otimizado para operaÃÃo em pressÃes inferiores Ãs convencionais, de modo a ser alimentado por um compressor acionado por mÃdulos fotovoltaicos, suprindo as necessidades de esfriamento em localidades desprovidas de energia elÃtrica. Nas mediÃÃes experimentais, foram obtidas temperaturas abaixo do ponto de congelamento da Ãgua por meio da combinaÃÃo de certos parÃmetros, possibilitando a esse sistema de climatizaÃÃo ser utilizado de maneira eficiente e racional em localidades remotas, podendo contribuir para a soluÃÃo da questÃo energÃtica e ambiental da sociedade. / The search for new refrigeration systems has become the target of various researchers. Their goal is to reduce the environment impacts resulting from the destruction of the ozone layer and the greenhouse effects that harm life in the planet Earth. Vapor-compression refrigeration systems represent a big fraction of the world energy consumption in houses and commercial stores (between 20 to 25%) and these systems usually run during the day, when the energy demand and the prices are higher. Refrigeration systems are necessary to todayâs human activities, such as food and medicament conservation, air conditioning, etc. Photovoltaic systems are reliable energy sources and they can operate separately from the distribution energy grid. For these reasons, there is an increase in the use of refrigeration systems powered by solar photovoltaic panels in rural areas. Ranque-Hilsch tubes or vorticity tubes are commonly used for low cost local refrigeration, where compressed air is available. In this study, a vortex tube was designed, tested, and optimized to operate at pressure levels lower than the conventional values. The purpose is to allow its operation by a compressor system powered by solar photovoltaic panels and, therefore, its installation in locations where there is no electrical grid. In the experimental measurements, temperatures below the water freezing point were reached due to the combination of a number of tube parameters. These low temperature values support the use of the vortex tube in air cooling applications in a more efficient and rational energy use, particularly in remote locations, and can contribute to the solution of the energy demand and environmental problems.

A presente se tese desenvolve uma metodologia para comparar as substâncias emitidas na construção e operação de sistema frigorífico por absorção e por compressão de vapor de amônia usando a metodologia denominada Análise do Ciclo de Vida (ACV). Pesquisas bibliográficas feitas pelo autor desse trabalho permitem a conclusão de haver poucas informações que permitam a elaboração de um inventário de ciclo de vida para ciclo frigorífico por absorção e por compressão de vapor tendo como fluido de trabalho a amônia. Realizado todo o dimensionamento termodinâmico e mecânico dos ciclos e aplicada a metodologia ACV, os resultados demonstram que a operação do ciclo frigorífico por compressão produz 626,91% mais de hidrocarbonetos quando comparada com a quantidade emitida devido a construção. Demonstram ainda que as substâncias emitidas são diferentes para o ciclo por absorção e para o por compressão de vapor de amônia. / This thesis proposes to develop a way to compare the substances emitted in the construction and operation of a refrigeration cycle by absorption and compression of vapor ammonia using the methodology called Life Cycle Analysis (ACV). Bibliographic researches made by the author of this study suggest there is little information to allow the construction of an inventory of the life cycle to a refrigeration systems. Carried out all the thermodynamic and mechanical design cycles and applied the ACV methodology, the results demonstrate that the operation of the compression cycle produce 626,91% more hydrocarbon in comparison with the construction. The results shows that the substances emitted by absorption or compression cycle are different.

[pt] É estudada a aplicação de nanofluidos como fluidos secundários em sistemas de refrigeração por compressão de vapor mediante o desenvolvimento de um modelo termodinâmico de parâmetros concentrados. Quando um nanofluido é usado como fluido térmico, sua condutividade e viscosidade aumentam com respeito às propriedades do fluido base correspondente. Como conseqüência, a irreversibilidade por transferência calor diminui enquanto que a por atrito aumenta. É aplicado o método dos coeficientes estruturais para determinar o efeito da concentração de nanopartículas no fluido secundário na irreversibilidade global do sistema, levando em consideração as inter-relações da estrutura analisada. Para estimar os limites práticos da redução da irreversibilidade térmica com o uso de nanofluidos é proposta uma otimização do custo operacional, a partir de análise termoeconômica, considerando a aplicação do novo fluido secundário no sistema, sem nenhuma outra modificação no mesmo. A partir do modelo proposto, verificado com dados experimentais do ciclo de refrigeração, simulou-se um caso particular de operação. Mediante uma otimização parcial, foi determinado o ponto de mínimo custo operacional, com a simples variação da concentração volumétrica de nanopartículas. Os resultados das otimizações fornecem diferentes valores da concentração ótima para diferentes cenários, caracterizados por vários comprimentos equivalentes do circuito secundário e diversos tempos de operação anual. Adicionalmente, o trabalho inclui um estudo sobre a aplicação de nanofluidos em um evaporador de casco e tubo, o qual foi simulado a partir de um modelo termodinâmico detalhado. Dados experimentais foram levantados para validar o modelo. / [en] The application of nanofluids as secondary fluids in vapor compression refrigeration systems is studied with the development of a lumped-parameter thermodynamic model. When a nanofluid is used as a heat transfer fluid, its thermal conductivity and viscosity increase, when compared with the corresponding properties of the base fluid. The irreversibilities due to heat transfer and due to friction decrease and increase, respectively. After irreversibility is calculated for each component, the method of structural coefficients of internal bonds is applied to determine the effect of the volumetric concentration of nanoparticles in the secondary fluid on the system s global irreversibility, taking into account the interrelations of the analyzed structure. To estimate the practical limits of thermal irreversibility reduction with nanofluid application, an optimization of operational cost was proposed, based on thermoeconomic analysis, and considering the application of the new secondary fluid on the system, without additional modifications. Based on the proposed model, which was verified by experimental data, an typical operation condition was simulated. Through partial optimization, the minimum operational cost is determined for a simple variation of volumetric concentration of nanoparticles. The results of the optimizations furnish different optimal concentration values for different scenarios. Additionally, an study of nanofluid application in a shell and tube evaporator was included. The evaporator was simulated from a detailed thermodynamic model. Experimental data were collected to validate the model.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-12-17T15:14:34Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 NeymarPC.pdf: 3020681 bytes, checksum: 48c16b28c034f7abb4c4e6b49c509e50 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2007-09-28 / Water still represents, on its critical properties and phase transitions, a problem of current scientific interest, as a consequence of the countless open questions and of the inadequacy of the existent theoretical models, mainly related to the different solid and liquid phases that this substance possesses. For example, there are 13 known crystalline forms of water, and also amorphous phases. One of them, the amorphous ice of very high density (VHDA), was just recently observed. Other example is the anomalous behavior in the macroscopic density, which presents a maximum at the temperature of 277 K. In order to experimentally investigate the behavior of one of the liquid-solid phase transitions, the anomaly in its density and also the metastability, we used three different cooling techniques and, as comparison systems, we made use of the solvents: acetone and ethyl alcohol. The first studied cooling system employ a Peltier plate, a device recently developed, which makes use of small cubes made up of semiconductors to change heat among two surfaces; the second system is a commercial refrigerator, similar to the residential ones. Finally, the liquid nitrogen technique, which is used to refrigerate the samples in a container, in two ways: a very fast and other one, almost static. In those three systems, three Beckers of aluminum were used (with a volume of 80 ml, each), containing water, alcohol and acetone. They were closed and maintained at atmospheric pressure. Inside of each Becker were installed three thermocouples, disposed along the vertical axis of the Beckers, one close to the inferior surface, other to the medium level and the last one close the superior surface. A system of data acquisition was built via virtual instrumentation using as a central equipment a Data-Acquisition board. The temperature data were collected by the three thermocouples in the three Beckers, simultaneously, in function of freezing time. We will present the behavior of temperature versus freezing time for the three substances. The results show the characterization of the transitions of the liquid / A ?gua ainda representa, em suas propriedades cr?ticas e transi??es de fase,um problema de interesse cient?fico atual, em conseq??ncia das in?meras quest?es em aberto e da insufici?ncia dos modelos te?ricos existentes, principalmente relacionados ?s diferentes fases s?lidas e l?quidas que esta subst?ncia possui. Por exemplo, das 13 formas cristalinas conhecidas, a ?gua exibe diferentes fases amorfas, sendo que uma delas, o gelo amorfo de muito alta densidade (VHDA), foi observada apenas recentemente. Outro exemplo ? o comportamento an?malo na densidade que apresenta um m?ximo a 277K. Para investigar experimentalmente o comportamento de uma das transi??es de fase l?quida s?lida da ?gua, a anomalia na sua densidade e tamb?m a meta estabilidade, usamos tr?s diferentes sistemas de refrigera??o e empregamos como sistemas de compara??o, os solventes: Acetona e ?lcool et?lico. O primeiro sistema de refrigera??o usa uma placa Peltier, um dispositivo relativamente novo, que usa pequenos cubos semicondutores para trocar calor entre duas superf?cies; o segundo foi um refrigerador comum, semelhante aos residenciais, uma geladeira. Finalmente o nitrog?nio l?quido, que ? usado para refrigerar as amostras num container de duas maneiras, uma muito r?pida e outra, quase est?tica. Nesses tr?s sistemas foram utilizados tr?s beckers de alum?nio (com volume de 80ml, cada), contendo ?gua, ?lcool e acetona, fechado se mantidos ? press?o atmosf?rica. Dentro de cada becker foram arranjados tr?s termopares, dispostos ao longo do eixo vertical dos beckers, um pr?ximo a superf?cie inferior, outro ao n?vel m?dio e o ?ltimo pr?ximo a superf?cie superior. Um sistema de aquisi??o de dados foi montado via instrumenta??o virtual usando como equipamento central um Data Acquisitions. Com isso, foram coletados os dados de temperatura pelos tr?s termopares nos tr?s beckers, simultaneamente, em fun??o do tempo de congelamento. Apresentaremos o comportamento de temperatura versus tempo de congelamento para as tr?s subst?ncias. Os resultados mostram a caracteriza??o de transi??es das fases l?quido s?lidas nos tr?s l?quidos, com ocorr?ncia da fase meta est?vel tanto para a ?gua quanto para o ?lcool e acetona, indicando a din?mica da ?gua nos diferentes aparatos de medida

Orientador: Luiz Felipe Mendes de Moura / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Mecanica / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-12T21:08:34Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Brandao_MatheusMarcelino_M.pdf: 452664 bytes, checksum: 124f6ab109716c77cffe6f192c006b30 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2005 / Resumo: No presente trabalho se realiza o estudo e desenvolvimento de um modelo numérico computacional com a finalidade da simulação de sistemas de refrigeração por compressão de vapor. Em um primeiro momento, foram analisados e discutidos os principais tipos de modelamento para cada componente do sistema de refrigeração (compressor, condensador, válvula de expansão e evaporador) encontrados na literatura. Após esta primeira análise, foram escolhidos os modelos utilizados para o desenvolvimento do programa computacional. O programa foi validado a partir da comparação dos resultados obtidos numericamente com os obtidos em ensaios experimentais. Após a validação, foram feitos dois estudos de casos, para a verificação da influência dos parâmetros sobre os sistemas simulados e otimização do desempenho de tais sistemas / Abstract: This work performs the study and development of a numerical computational model in order to simulate refrigeration systems by steam compression. At first, the main types of modelation for each component of the refrigeration system (compressor, condenser, expansion valve and evaporator) found in literature are analysed and discussed. After this first analysis, the models for the development of a computational program are chosen. The program is validated by means of the comparison of the results obtained numerically with those acquired in experimental tests. Just after validation, two studies of cases are made to verify the influence of the parameters on the simulated systems and to optimize the performance of those systems / Mestrado / Termica e Fluidos / Mestre em Engenharia Mecânica

Thesis (Ph.D. (Mechanical Engineering))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2008.