Background: Since 2008 there is a law stating that patients who do not require institutional forensic psychiatric care may be moved to non-institutional forensic care, with special conditions. RättspsyK is a national quality register where all of the 25 forensic care units in Sweden collect information about their patients and their care. Previous analysis showed that a considerable amount of patients continue to receive institutional forensic psychiatric care despite they are assessed and found ready to move onto non-institutional forensic care. Aim: The objective of this study was to identify factors affecting why patients were still in institutional forensic care despite assessed to be ready for non-institutional forensic care.Method: First, yearly assessment of each patient between 2009 and 2014 was drawn from the RättspsyK register. Answers to the specific question, Question 10, were analyzed with descriptive statistics and were planned to be used in regression analyses as dependent variable. Result: 1900 patients were included. During analyses the fact that answers to this question were not trustable was found, therefore no exact prevalence of inpatients kept in institutional forensic care despite assessed ready for non-institutional care could be determined. Other information revealed that lack of housing and lack of collaboration were the most frequent reasons for this phenomenon. Conclusion: The present study could not give answer to the original question, but pointed out avalidity problem in the Swedish Forensic Psychiatry Register. The result calls for caution and for the need of validation of RättspsyK register.

This thesis contributes to the research area of causal inference, where estimation of the effect of a treatment on an outcome of interest is the main objective. Some aspects of the estimation of average causal effects in observational studies in general, and case-control studies in particular, are explored. An important part of estimating causal effects in an observational study is to control for covariates. The first paper of this thesis concerns the selection of minimal covariate sets sufficient for unconfoundedness of the treatment assignment. A data-driven implementation of two covariate selection algorithms is proposed and evaluated. A common sampling scheme in epidemiology, and when investigating rare events, is the case-control design. In the second paper we study estimators of the marginal causal odds ratio in matched and independent case-control designs. Estimators that, under a logistic regression model, utilize information about the known prevalence of being a case is examined and compared through simulations. The third paper investigates the particular situation where case-control sampled data is reused to estimate the effect of the case-defining event on an outcome of interest. The consequence of ignoring the design when estimating the average causal effect is discussed and a design-weighted matching estimator is proposed. The performance of the estimator is evaluated with simulation experiments, when matching on the covariates directly and when matching on the propensity score. The last paper studies the effect of type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) on school achievements using data from the Swedish Childhood Diabetes Register, a population-based incidence register. We apply theoretical results from the second and third papers in the estimation of the average causal effect within the T1DM population. A matching estimator that accounts for the matched case-control design is used.

Background Self-harm is a major and growing public health issue among young people worldwide. Self-harm is an important risk factor for suicide, which is one of the leading causes of death for young people. Although suicide rates are declining overall, this trend is not seen in young people. Young people with mental distress and/or suicidal thoughts are reluctant to seek help, and often drop out of treatment initiated after a self-harm episode. Many young people who self-harm have had contact with healthcare before their first self-harm episode, but often for reasons other than suicidal thoughts or psychiatric problems. In this context, physical illness is associated with increased risk for self-harm and suicide among young people. The present thesis investigated how young people perceived the help and support they received before and after an episode of self-harm. A further aim was to map the inpatient somatic healthcare contacts young patients had before an episode of self-harm, and determine any relationship to risk for self-harm and suicide. Method Four studies were conducted using qualitative and quantitative methods. Participants were people aged 16-24 years. The definition of self-harm was based on the intentional self-harm criteria in the International Classification of Diseases, tenth revision, which includes all forms of self-harm without ascribing suicidal intent. In the first two studies, 10 respective 9 participants with a first healthcare contact for self-harm were interviewed during 2009-2011. The interviews covered participants’ knowledge and experience of professional care before their healthcare contact for self-harm. Participants were interviewed a second time 6 months later about their experiences with professional care during the period since their initial interview. Qualitative content analysis was used for all interviews. For the next two studies, we selected 16,235 participants with a first hospitalisation for self-harm during 1999-2009 from the Swedish National Inpatient Register. These cases were compared with matched controls to determine the odds of having been admitted with a non-psychiatric diagnosis during the year preceding the self-harm admission. To assess risk for suicide, data were retrieved from the Swedish Cause of Death Register for all deceased participants until 2013, and group differences were determined using survival analysis. Results In the first interview, participants described how they wanted more information on where they could turn for professional help. They also wanted different help-seeking pathways and emphasised the importance of the quality of professional contact. After 6 months, participants stressed the importance of being able to rely on professionals and treatment. Their life circumstances significantly affected their treatment, and practical help was appreciated. The register studies showed that young people admitted for self-harm were more likely to have been hospitalised with symptomatic diagnoses such as abdominal pain and syncope/collapse, and somatic illnesses such as epilepsy and diabetes mellitus type 1. A higher proportion of cases (4.5%; women 2.6%, men 8.8%) died during the study period than controls (0.3%; women 0.2%, men 0.6%) (p<0.001). For both cases and controls, a higher proportion of those with a previous somatic admission died from suicide during the study period than those without a somatic admission (cases: 4.2% vs. 2.8%, p<0.05). For cases with a somatic admission, the hazard ratio was 1.43 (95% confidence interval 1.04-1.98) compared with those without somatic admissions (controlled for age, sex and psychiatric admission). Survival of cases with a previous somatic admission compared with those without was 98.4% versus 99.2% after the first year, 97.8% versus 98.9% after the second year, and 95.5% versus 96.9% after the tenth year. Conclusion These findings suggest that healthcare providers need to find new ways to reach young people at risk for suicidal behaviour. Access to professional help should be easy and direct. Treatment for young people after self-harm should be flexible, and be receptive to input from the patient. The importance of and need for basic practical help should not be overlooked. Somatic healthcare contact provides an opportunity for intervention, particularly as psychiatric problems can manifest as physical symptoms, and physical illness is a risk factor for self-harm and suicide.

This thesis examines how tourism affects conditions for young adults in rural areas. Such a study lies at the intersection of research about tourism impacts, adult transition, and rural areas. The aim is to examine how largescale tourism affects the opportunities for young adults living in rural areas; their perception of place and the perceived opportunities and obstacles that tourism provides. The thesis utilizes a mixed method approach. A quantitative study based on micro-data on individuals identifies the patterns and magnitudes of the mechanisms by which tourism affects population change among young adults. Interview methods are used in the case study area, Sälen, to investigate these mechanisms in depth. Finally, the rural–urban dichotomy is explored in a conceptual study that asks how tourism affects the perception of a local village as either rural or urban. Young inhabitants in rural areas are rarely considered in tourism research; therefore, the main contribution of this thesis is that it illuminates how tourism affects conditions for young adults in rural areas. The thesis reveals a substantial impact on the adult transition, mainly due to easier access to the labor market and a good supply of jobs during the high season. Further, the large number of people passing through creates flows of opportunities to make friends, get a job, or just meet people. All of these factors contribute to high mobility in these places, and to the perception of them as places where things happen. The high mobility in Sälen implies that fixed migrant categories (such as stayers and leavers) are largely insufficient. The tourism environment creates a space that is always under construction and continually producing new social relations mainly perceived as opportunities. Conceptualizing this as a modern rurality is a way to move beyond the often implicit notions of urban as modern and rural as traditional.

This thesis contributes to the field of causal inference, where the main interest is to estimate the effect of a treatment on some outcome. At its core, causal inference is an exercise in controlling for imbalance (differences) in covariate distributions between the treated and the controls, as such imbalances otherwise can bias estimates of causal effects. Imbalance on observed covariates can be handled through matching, where treated and controls with similar covariate distributions are extracted from a data set and then used to estimate the effect of a treatment. The first paper of this thesis describes and investigates a matching design, where a data-driven algorithm is used to discretise a covariate before matching. The paper also gives sufficient conditions for if, and how, a covariate can be discretised without introducing bias. Balance is needed for unobserved covariates too, but is more difficult to achieve and verify. Unobserved covariates are sometimes replaced with correlated counterparts, usually referred to as proxy variables. However, just replacing an unobserved covariate with a correlated one does not guarantee an elimination of, or even reduction of, bias. In the second paper we formalise proxy variables in a causal inference framework and give sufficient conditions for when they lead to nonparametric identification of causal effects. The third and fourth papers both concern estimating the effect an enhanced cooperation between the Swedish Social Insurance Agency and the Public Employment Service has on reducing sick leave. The third paper is a study protocol, where the matching design used to estimate this effect is described. The matching was then also carried out in the study protocol, before the outcome for the treated was available, ensuring that the matching design was not influenced by any estimated causal effects. The third paper also presents a potential proxy variable for unobserved covariates, that is used as part of the matching. The fourth paper then carries out the analysis described in the third paper, and uses an instrumental variable approach to test for unobserved confounding not captured by the supposed proxy variable.

Syftet med studien var att kartlägga urininkontinensarbetet med kvalitetsregistret Senior Alerts urininkontinensmodul i två kommuner över en bestämd tid januari till juni 2014 samt januari till juni 2015. Metoden bestod i att använda sig av registerdata som tillhandahölls av registerhållaren för Senior Alert. Resultatet visade att mer än hälften av de personer som riskbedömts i kommun G hade någon form av urininkontinens under båda tidsperioderna. I kommun M var andelen ännu högre cirka 80 %. Bakomliggande orsaker till urininkontinens visade sig vara de aspekter som nämns i Senior Alerts modul förutom förstoppningsproblematik samt nedsatt känsel i underlivet som inte framkom lika tydligt som övriga aspekter. Genom att använda Senior Alert kan ett mönster utkristalliserats och det går att erbjuda individuellt anpassade åtgärder för personer med inkontinensproblematik. Med enkla åtgärder kan personer få hjälp med avföringsregim, toalettassistans, utprovning av inkontinenshjälpmedel hjälpas enligt skalan i Senior Alert. Det vill säga skalan påvisar vilken hjälp som kan behövas för patienten, samt för vårdpersonal som sedan utför avsedda åtgärder. / The purpose of the study is to identify urinary incontinence work with quality registry Senior Alerts urinary incontinence module in two municipalities over a fixed period January to June 2014 and from January to June 2015. The method was to use the registry data that is later held by the Depositary of the Senior Alert. The result showed that more than half of the individuals in risk assessments were conducted on municipal G had any form of urinary incontinence in both periods. The municipality M proportion was even higher, about 80%. Underlying causes of urinary incontinence was found to be the aspects mentioned in the Senior Alerts module except constipation problems and loss of sensation in the genital area that is not revealed as clearly as the other aspects. Using Senior Alert, a pattern emerged, and it is possible to provide individually tailored measures for people with incontinence problems. With simple measures, can patients with feces regime, toilet assistance, testing of incontinence aids can the scale of Senior Alert be helpful. The scale demonstrates what assistance may be needed for patients, health professionals then perform the action.

Bakgrund: Antalet äldre i befolkningen blir fler och behovet av palliativ vård ökar. Socialstyrelsen har tagit fram nationella kvalitetsindikatorer som speglar de viktigaste aspekterna av god palliativ vård, där brytpunktssamtal utgör en av dessa. Syfte: Att undersöka om brytpunktsamtal med patient har någon betydelse för den palliativa vården personer 65 år eller äldre erhåller under sin sista levnadsvecka. Metod: Kvantitativ icke-experimentell retrospektiv registerstudie med data från Svenska palliativregistret. Resultatet har analyserats med sambandstest och logistisk regressionsanalys. Resultat: Signifikanta samband mellan brytpunktssamtal med patient och samtliga av de undersökta kvalitetsindikatorerna för god palliativ vård påvisades. De personer som erhållit brytpunktssamtal fick under sin sista levnadsvecka i högre grad munhälsan bedömd, smärtskattades i högre utsträckning samt hade i högre utsträckning smärtstillande opioid och ångestdämpande läkemedel ordinerade vid behov. Däremot avled fler personer med trycksår hos de som hade haft brytpunktssamtal än de som inte haft det. Slutsats: Att signifikanta samband finns mellan brytpunktssamtal med patient och måluppfyllelsen av Socialstyrelsens indikatorer för god palliativ vård tyder på att brytpunktssamtalet har betydelse för kvaliteten på den palliativa vården som personer 65 år eller äldre erhåller. / Background: The number of older people in the population is growing and the need for palliative care is increasing. The National Board of Health and Welfare has developed national quality indicators to reflect upon the most important aspects of good palliative care, end-of-life (EOL) conversations is one of them. Purpose: To examine whether EOL conversation with patients have any significance for the palliative care people 65 years or older receive during their last week of life. Method: Quantitative non-experimental retrospective registry study with data from the Swedish Palliative Registry. The results have been analysed with correlation tests and logistic regression analysis. Results: Significant relationships between EOL conversations with patients and the investigated quality indicators were demonstrated. During the last week of life, the people who received EOL conversations to higher extent had their oral health and their pain assessed, and they had opioid pain-relieving drugs and anti-anxiety drugs prescribed to a higher extent. However, more people died with pressure ulcers than in those who had had a EOL conversation than in those who had not. Conclusion: The fact that there are significant connections between EOL conversation with the patient and the goal fulfilment of the indicators for good palliative care indicates that the EOL conversation is important for the quality of the palliative care people 65 year or older receive.

This thesis examines how tourism affects conditions for young adults in rural areas. Such a study lies at the intersection of research about tourism impacts, adult transition, and rural areas. The aim is to examine how largescale tourism affects the opportunities for young adults living in rural areas; their perception of place and the perceived opportunities and obstacles that tourism provides. The thesis utilizes a mixed method approach. A quantitative study based on micro-data on individuals identifies the patterns and magnitudes of the mechanisms by which tourism affects population change among young adults. Interview methods are used in the case study area, Sälen, to investigate these mechanisms in depth. Finally, the rural–urban dichotomy is explored in a conceptual study that asks how tourism affects the perception of a local village as either rural or urban. Young inhabitants in rural areas are rarely considered in tourism research; therefore, the main contribution of this thesis is that it illuminates how tourism affects conditions for young adults in rural areas. The thesis reveals a substantial impact on the adult transition, mainly due to easier access to the labor market and a good supply of jobs during the high season. Further, the large number of people passing through creates flows of opportunities to make friends, get a job, or just meet people. All of these factors contribute to high mobility in these places, and to the perception of them as places where things happen. The high mobility in Sälen implies that fixed migrant categories (such as stayers and leavers) are largely insufficient. The tourism environment creates a space that is always under construction and continually producing new social relations mainly perceived as opportunities. Conceptualizing this as a modern rurality is a way to move beyond the often implicit notions of urban as modern and rural as traditional.