The desire to reduce dependence on fossil fuels is resulting in numerous policy incentives for increased renewable energy sources within the power grid. Because wind generation is arguably the most affordable per MWh of the renewable energy sources it is growing nearly as quickly as conventional generation techniques. Due to this significant increase in wind penetration levels, numerous largescale wind integration studies have been produced to determine the reliability impacts of large-scale wind power. Using data from two large US wind interconnection studies, this thesis provides evidence that mesoscale meteorological models under-predict the variability in wind data particularly on short time scales, indicating that data from mesoscale meteorological models need to be used with caution for some types of analyses. These types of analyses include most notably regulating reserves, which are used to rebalance supply and demand on a second-by-second bias. This thesis will also describe and evaluate a new method for jointly quantifying the amount of spinning and regulating reserves required to meet reliability requirements within a balancing area with significant amounts of wind power using high resolution wind data. The method is based on jointly minimizing dispatch costs and reserve allocations, across two time scales (seconds to minutes, and minutes to hours) to satisfy North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC) Area Control Error (ACE) requirements.

This paper presents an analysis of the feasibility of utilizing a hybrid renewable energy system to supply the energy demand of a milk and meat farm in Cuba. The study performs simulation and optimization to obtain a system design of a hybrid renewable energy system for application on the farm Desembarco del Granma in the Villa Clara province in the central part of Cuba, for three different cases of biomass availability. The energy resources considered are solar PV, biogas, and wind. A field study is carried out to evaluate the energy load and the biomass resource available for biogas production of the farm Desembarco del Granma, and the feasibility of biogas electrification is evaluated for the three different scenarios of biomass availability. The field study methodology includes semi structured interviews and participant observation for information collection. The farm Desembrero del Granma is estimated to have a scaled annual average electrical load of 264 kWh/day with peak load 26.34 kW, while the scaled annual average deferrable load of the farm was estimated to be 76 kWh/day with a peak load 16 kW. The thermal load was find to consist primarily of energy for water heating and cooking. The thermal demand for cooking was estimate to be 4.5 kWh per day, while the thermal load for water heating was not estimated. The thermal energy need for water heating is assumed to be provided for by solar thermal energy, and is not included in the energy system models of this study. For the modeling, the thermal demand for cooking is assumed to be provided by combustion of biogas. System simulation and optimization in regard to energy efficiency, economic viability and environmental impact is carried out by applying the Hybrid Optimization Model for Electric Renewables (HOMER) simulation and optimization software tool. For two of the biomass scenarios, the optimized energy systems received in HOMER were identical; hence only two biomass scenarios were analyzed. The first one represents the current biomass collected and the biogas production capacity of the farm (including the one not yet utilized), and the second one represents the amount of biomass available if the animals would be gathered in the same place all of the time. A PV-wind hybrid energy system with 100 kW PV installed capacity, 30 kW wind power installed capacity consisting of 10 wind turbines of the size 3 kW, a battery bank of 100 batteries (83.4 Ah/24 V), and a 100 kW inverter is considered the most feasible solution for the current biomass scenario. For the increased biomass scenario, a PV-biogas hybrid energy system configuration of 5 kW PV installed capacity, a 60 kW biogas generator, and an inverter of the size 10 kW is considered the most feasible option. Biogas electrification is shown to not be economically feasible for the current biomass scenario during the conditions modeled in this study, but for the increased biomass scenario biogas electrification was shown to be a feasible option. If the farm would build more biodigestors, biogas electrification could thereby be effective from a financial point of view.

This thesis examines the observed and anticipated impacts of climate change on energy security. Specifically, by incorporating emergent international legal obligations and regulations governing climate change, this thesis proposes a definitional and policy framework for energy security that can assist in making Nigeria’s energy supply more secure. This, in turn, can serve to improve Nigeria’s capacity to meet current and future climate change obligations. While the principal objective of this thesis is to explore how global climate change risk regulation provides opportunities for the state to improve energy security in Nigeria, this thesis emphasizes that Nigerian law should aim to create a balance between the dual objectives of energy security and climate change responses. Using the theory of legal transplantation, further insights for integrating climate and energy security goals to develop the definitional and policy framework of energy security in Nigeria are gained through an examination of bold initiatives taken by Germany. / October 2016

<p>This dissertation studies capacity investments in energy sources, with a focus on renewable technologies, such as solar and wind energy. We develop analytical models to provide insights for policymakers and use real data from the state of Texas to corroborate our findings. </p><p>We first take a strategic perspective and focus on electricity pricing policies. Specifically, we investigate the capacity investments of a utility firm in renewable and conventional energy sources under flat and peak pricing policies. We consider generation patterns and intermittency of solar and wind energy in relation to the electricity demand throughout a day. We find that flat pricing leads to a higher investment level for solar energy and it can still lead to more investments in wind energy if considerable amount of wind energy is generated throughout the day.</p><p>In the second essay, we complement the first one by focusing on the problem of matching supply with demand in every operating period (e.g., every five minutes) from the perspective of a utility firm. We study the interaction between renewable and conventional sources with different levels of operational flexibility, i.e., the possibility</p><p>of quickly ramping energy output up or down. We show that operational flexibility determines these interactions: renewable and inflexible sources (e.g., nuclear energy) are substitutes, whereas renewable and flexible sources (e.g., natural gas) are complements. </p><p>In the final essay, rather than the capacity investments of the utility firms, we focus on the capacity investments of households in rooftop solar panels. We investigate whether or not these investments may cause a utility death spiral effect, which is a vicious circle of increased solar adoption and higher electricity prices. We observe that the current rate-of-return regulation may lead to a death spiral for utility firms. We show that one way to reverse the spiral effect is to allow the utility firms to maximize their profits by determining electricity prices.</p> / Dissertation

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Johannesburg 10th of October 2016 / Thermal pyrolysis is one of the viable technologies suitable for the management of organic solid waste, which has become a global challenge over the years. This is due to the non-biodegradability of these materials and their continuous usage across all segments of man’s daily activities. Effectiveness of the method is in converting these materials under controlled process conditions, that enable the optimization of the fraction of interest, such as the liquid fraction also referred to as pyrolytic oil with a near zero pollution effect on the environment. The main setback in the production of the liquid fraction include low yield, presence of sulphur and other aromatic compounds which have been linked to environmental pollution and health complications. This study focuses on improving the liquid fraction yield and composition obtainable from pyrolysis process. Latex natural rubber (obtained from Hevea Brasiliensis) was pyrolysed and its products compared with that of the used tyres. The production of pyrolytic oil from used tyres and natural rubber was performed using thermal and catalytic pyrolysis processes. The operating temperature range of 375 to 750 oC (at an interval of 75 oC) at a heating rate of 15oC/min and feed material particle sizes of 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mm were used. In addition, Zeolite NaY was synthesized from Lawani Benin River Kaolin (LBK) at a synthesis time and temperature of 9 h and 100 oC respectively, using hydrothermal synthesis method, and used for catalytic pyrolysis. The chemical characterisation revealed pyrolytic oil composition to be a complex mixture of aliphatic, aromatics, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and other oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur and chlorinated compounds in small proportions. The non-catalysed and catalysed pyrolysis using natural rubber resulted in pyrolytic oil with 80 and 66% of aliphatic, 12 and 15% aromatic (with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons concentration of 2 and 1%). The non-catalysed and catalysed pyrolysis using used tyres yielded pyrolytic oil with 42 and 32% of aliphatic, 34 and 39% aromatic (with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons concentrations of 18 and 23%). The kinetics of the thermal degradation with the aid of a thermogravimetry and differential thermogravimetry analyzer was performed over a temperature range of 30 to 800 oC at a heating rate of 15, 20 and 30oC/min. Results showed that natural rubber displayed higher activation energy than used tyres, with respect to the heating rates. This is an indication that natural rubber is more difficult to thermally decompose than used tyres. The distillation temperature of the distillates was within the temperature range of the conventional petrol and diesel. The composition of the distillates revealed carbon chain length of C5-C30 with majority being C8 – C10. A spark ignition generator engine was used to perform the combustion tests for the various pyrolytic oil distillates and petrol blended in the ratio 0, 5, 10, 15 and 20% successfully without engine modification. For the fuel consumption with respect to generator run time, it was observed that an optimum of 20% natural rubber pyrolytic oil distillates (NRPD)-Petrol blend gave comparative fuel consumption behavior with that of commercial petrol. Furthermore, the 20% NRPD distillates gave optimum fuel consumption and power. Hence, a significant yield improvement and combustion performance were observed for the pyrolytic oil derived from natural rubber than that of used tyres. Further treatment of the pyrolytic oil distillates could pave the way for effective use of the oil as chemical feedstock for industries, or as substitutes for fossil fuel. It was also requisite to develop a mathematical model which adopts thermogravimetry analyser (TGA) as a dynamic apparatus to predict weight change of a material as it degrades with time at a fixed temperature. The proposed models were in three consecutive phases which were classified into three time zones 0 ≤ t ≤ t1, t1 ≤ t ≤ t2 and t ≤ t2. The general model equation for the first phase of degradation was 2 0 1 2 0 ( ) t T w t w e   , while the second phase model was and at the third phase, it is assumed that the limit of weight loss (in the second phase equation) as t tends to ∞ gives a value k , at which change in weight loss with time is negligible. The proposed model was used to plot graph of weight loss versus time at different fixed temperature which fitted well with the experimental TGA and had a characteristic pattern fitted closely to the second phase degradation of the fixed bed reactor. / MT2017

Ce travail est effectué dans le cadre d'une thèse Conventions Industrielles de Formation par la Recherche (CIFRE) entre l’entreprise Sophia Antipolis Énergie Développement (SAED) à Valbonne et l'Institut Matériaux Microélectronique Nanosciences de Provence (IM2NP) – CNRS – Université du Sud Toulon-Var.L’objectif de cette collaboration est l’évaluation du potentiel technico-économique de divers matériaux pour le stockage de l’énergie thermique par chaleur latente, adapté aux niveaux de température des capteurs solaires développés par SAED. En effet, le stockage de l’énergie est un des principaux verrous technologiques reconnus pour les procédés ayant recours à des énergies renouvelables intermittentes et en particulier pour les centrales héliothermodynamiques.Après une introduction sur le potentiel et l’intérêt des centrales solaires thermodynamiques à basse température, un bref état de l’art des principaux types de stockage de l’énergie est présenté. Le deuxième chapitre aborde plus en détail le principe du stockage thermique par chaleur latente et recense une centaine de matériaux sélectionnés dans la littérature pour leur changement de phase dans la gamme de température 70 - 140°C. Les critères de sélection retenus y sont exposés.Des analyses thermiques par calorimétrie différentielle à balayage sont effectuées de façon systématique sur les différents Matériaux à Changement de Phase (MCP) sélectionnés. Les résultats de ces mesures, présentés dans le chapitre III, caractérisent avec précision le comportement de ces matériaux au chauffage. La transformation au refroidissement est étudiée au moyen d’un dispositif conçu spécifiquement pour représenter au mieux les conditions imposées dans une enceinte industrielle. Cette étude, présentée dans le chapitre IV, permet d’affiner la sélection des MCP pour ne garder que ceux dont la réversibilité du changement d’état est compatible avec une utilisation industrielle en tant que milieu de stockage de l’énergie thermique. Les chapitres V et VI permettent d’étudier plus en détails les spécificités de deux types de MCP que sont les polyols et les mélanges eutectiques de nitrates.Le dernier chapitre est consacré à la modélisation des échanges thermiques au sein d’une cuve de stockage contenant un MCP encapsulé. L’objectif est de disposer d’un outil de prédiction des performances d’une unité de stockage par chaleur latente, afin d’analyser l’influence des différentes solutions envisagées sur le productible d’une centrale thermodynamique solaire et leur impact sur le coût du kWh électrique produit. / This work of thesis is done within the framework of industrial agreements research training, between the company Sophia Antipolis Energie Développement (SAED) in Valbonne, and the Institut Matériaux Microélectronique Nanosciences de Provence (IM2NP) – CNRS – University Sud Toulon-Var.The aim of this collaboration is to investigate the technical and economic potential of various materials for thermal energy storage by latent heat, suitable for temperature levels of the solar collectors developed by SAED. Indeed, energy storage is a major technological barrier to the process resorting to intermittent renewable energies and especially for thermodynamic solar power plants.After an introduction on the potential and interest of solar power plants working at low temperature, a brief state of art of the main types of energy storage is presented. The second chapter addresses in detail the principle of thermal storage by latent heat and identifies a hundred of selected materials from the literature for phase change in the temperature range 343 - 413 K. The selection criteria are exposed.Thermal analyses by differential scanning calorimetry are carried out systematically on the various selected Phase Change Materials (PCMs). The results of these measurements, presented in chapter III, accurately characterize the material behavior when heated. The transformation on cooling is studied using a device specifically designed in order to be more representative of conditions found in an industrial enclosure. This study, presented in chapter IV, allows refining the selection of PCMs retaining only those whose phase change reversibility is compatible with an industrial use as medium for thermal energy storage. Chapters V and VI are used to study in further detail the specifics of two types of MCP, respectively polyols and eutectic mixtures of nitrates.Final chapter deals with the modeling of heat transfer into a storage tank containing encapsulated PCM. The aim is to provide a tool for predicting the performance of a latent heat storage unit, in order to analyze the influence of different options on the solar power plant energy yield and their impact on the kWh cost.

A busca por fontes de energia renovável acontece em ritmo crescente em função do superaquecimento da Terra e mudanças climáticas causadas, especialmente, pela emissão de CO2. Entre as possibilidades de obter-se energia renovável, os biocombustíveis produzidos a partir do cultivo de microalgas apresentam-se como alternativa potencial. Microalgas podem alcançar altas taxas de produção a partir do consumo de energia luminosa, assimilação de nutrientes e biofixação de CO2 e sua biomassa pode dar origem a bioetanol, biogás, biodiesel e a outros bioprodutos de interesse biotecnológico. Visando avaliar a produção de biomassa e atividade metabólica, sob processo fotoautotrófico, 3 cepas de Chlorella sp. foram cultivadas em triplicata em fotobiorreatores bag &#40;1&#170; ETAPA&#41; e a cepa selecionada como mais produtiva foi cultivada em um fotobiorreator placa plana &#40;2&#170; ETAPA&#41; dimensionado para melhoramento de processos fotossintéticos. Para o cultivo, realizado em batelada, utilizou-se o meio M-8 com adição de 5&#37; de CO2, radiação luminosa de 200 &#181;mol.fótons.m-2.s-1 e fotoperíodo 12h claro&#47;escuro. Foram monitoradas a assimilação de nutrientes, a taxa de CO2 biofixado, a produção de biomassa e determinado o perfil bioquímico. Na 1&#170; ETAPA, a cepa DAM04 apresentou o melhor desempenho com assimilação de 37,5% (157,61&#177;17,39 de 420,00 mg.L-1&#41; do nitrogênio e 16,1&#37; &#40;34,42±3,96 de 213,90 mg.L-1&#41; do fósforo presente no meio de cultivo, taxa de CO2 biofixado de 0,193&#177;0,019 g.L-1.d-1 e produção de biomassa de 2,22&#177;0,21 g.L-1. A determinação do perfil bioquímico revelou acúmulo de lipídeos de 18,0&#177;0,5&#37;, constituídos por 50,0&#37; de ácidos graxos saturados, 21,3&#37; de monoinsaturados e 18,0&#37; de polinsaturados e produtividade lipídica, proteica e de carboidratos de 25,20&#177;1,80 mg.L-1.d-1, 62,02&#177;4,43 mg.L-1.d-1 e 17,78&#177;1,27 mg.L-1.d-1, respectivamente. Devido ao seu desempenho, a cepa DAM04 foi utilizada na 2&#170; ETAPA e o cultivo no fotobiorreator placa plana aumentou o desempenho da cepa em todos os parâmetros, implicando na assimilação de 89,1&#37; &#40;374,12&#177;27,76 de 420,00 mg.L-1&#41; do nitrogênio e 40,9&#37; &#40;87,37&#177;10,12 de 213,90 mg.L-1&#41; do fósforo, cerca de 3 vezes &#40;de 0,193&#177;0,019 para 0,593 g.L-1.d-1&#41; da taxa de CO2 biofixado e da produção de biomassa &#40;de 2,22&#177;0,21 para 5,4 g.L-1&#41; em relação ao fotobiorreator bag. O perfil bioquímico apresentou aumento na produtividade lipídica e proteica de, aproximadamente, 3 vezes &#40;de 25,20&#177;1,80 para 79,16&#177;1,52 mg.L-1.d-1&#41; e &#40;de 62,02&#177;4,43 para 168,44&#177;1,25 mg.L-1.d-1&#41;, respectivamente, e 2 vezes na produtividade de carboidratos &#40;de 17,78&#177;1,27 para 40,46&#177;0,33 mg.L-1.d-1&#41; quando comparados ao fotobiorreator bag. A 2&#170; ETAPA reforçou o potencial da cepa DAM04 para aplicação na biossíntese de compostos bioenergéticos de aplicação na produção de biocombustíveis e coloca como desafio para futuros trabalhos a exploração do potencial das cepas para biofixação de maiores concentrações de CO2 e otimização da captação de radiação luminosa. / The search for renewable energy sources happens at an increasing rate due to the overheating of the earth and climate change caused especially by the emission of CO2. Some of the possibilities to obtain renewable energy, biofuels produced from microalgae cultivation are presented as potential alternative. Microalgae can achieve high production rates from light energy consumption, nutrient assimilation and CO2 biofixation and their biomass can give rise to bioethanol, biogas, biodiesel and other bio-products of biotechnological interest. Aiming to evaluate the production of biomass and metabolic activity under photoautotrophic process, 3 strains of Chlorella sp. was grown in triplicate in photobioreactor bag &#40;1&#170; STAGE&#41; and the most productive strain was seleted and grown in a photobioreactor flat plate &#40;2&#170; STAGE&#41; dimensioned for enhancing photosynthetic processes. For growing, performed, sequencing batch, we used the medium M-8 with addition of 5&#37; CO2, light radiation 200 &#181;mol.photons.m-2.s-1 and a photoperiod 12h light&#47;dark. Were monitored assimilation of nutrients, CO2 biofixation rate, biomass production and determined the biochemical profile. In 1&#170;STAGE, the DAM04 strain showed best performance with assimilation of 37,5&#37; &#40;157,61&#177;17,39 of 420,00 mg.L-1&#41; of nitrogen and 16,1&#37; &#40;34,42&#177;3,96 of 213,90 mg.L-1&#41; of phosphorus present in the medium, CO2 biofixation rate of 0,193&#177;0,019 g.L-1.d-1 and biomass production 2,22&#177;0,21 g.L-1. The determination of biochemical profile showed accumulation of lipids to 18,0&#177; 0,5 &#37;, consisting of 50,0 &#37; of saturated fatty acids, 21,3 &#37; of monounsaturated and 18,0 &#37; polyunsaturated and lipid productivity, protein and carbohydrates of 25,2&#177;1,80 mg. L-1.d-1, 62,02&#177;4,43 mg. L-1.d-1 and 17,78&#177;1,27 mg L-1.d-1, respectively. Due to its performance, DAM04 strain was used in STAGE 2 &#170; and cultivation in the photobioreactor flat plate increased strain performance in all parameters, resulting in the assimilation of 89,1 &#37; &#40;374,12&#177;27,76 of 420,00 mg. L-1&#41; of nitrogen and 40.9 &#37; &#40;87,37 of 213,90&#177;10,12 mg. L-1&#41; of phosphorus, about 3 times &#40;of 0,193&#177;0,019 to 0,593 g. L-1.d-1&#41; of CO2 biofixation rate and biomass production &#40;of 2,22&#177;0,21 to 5,4 g. L-1&#41; relative to the photobioreactor bag . The biochemical profile showed an increase in lipid and protein productivity of approximately 3 times &#40;of 25,20&#177;1,80 to 79,16&#177;1,52 mg. L-1.d-1&#41; and &#40;of 62,02&#177;4,43 to 168,44&#177;1,25 mg. L-1.d-1&#41;, respectively, and 2 times in the productivity of carbohydrates &#40;of 17,78&#177;1,27 to 40,46&#177;0,33 mg. L-1.d-1&#41; compared to the photobioreactor bag. The 2 &#170; STAGE reinforced the potential of DAM04 strain for use in the biosynthesis of bioenergetic compounds application in the production of biofuels and puts as a challenge for future studies exploring the potential of strains to biofixation of higher CO2 concentrations and optimization capture light radiation.

O desenvolvimento de fontes alternativas de energia, com o intuito de diminuir a poluição gerada pela queima de combustíveis fósseis, tem estimulado cientistas a procurar novos meios de converter e armazenar energia. Adicionalmente, mudanças climáticas e o crescimento populacional têm gerado uma preocupação crescente com relação à escassez de água. Atualmente, cerca de 3% do consumo global de energia elétrica é referente ao tratamento de águas residuais oriundas de zonas urbanas. A humanidade precisa encontrar meios de usar água limpa e potável de forma mais eficiente. O armazenamento de energia durante o tratamento de águas residuais pode encorajar a preservação ambiental, e desta forma, contribuir para um crescimento mais sustentável, pois pode tornar-se rentável para as indústrias que geram e tratam estes resíduos. Uma estratégia é a utilização de gradientes iônicos e, então, convertê-los em energia elétrica. Pesquisas têm sido realizadas com sistemas contendo soluções eletrolíticas, com diferentes concentrações, e utilizando ciclos eletroquímicos para produzir trabalho elétrico. Neste contexto, são propostos sistemas eletroquímicos, chamados máquinas ácido-base foto-assistidas, que possibilitam a conversão, e o armazenamento, de energia elétrica durante a neutralização de soluções ácidas mediante irradiação de luz UV. Configurações alternativas destes dispositivos permitem, também, a dessalinização de soluções salinas com a possibilidade de recuperar parte da energia utilizada no procedimento. O princípio operacional destes sistemas baseia-se na variação entrópica, oriunda da mudança nas atividades de prótons e íons alcalinos, como também, na conversão de energia eletromagnética em energia elétrica. Através de experimentos de prova de conceito, foi possível obter 108 kJ por mol de íon eletroinserido, valor que corresponde a 10,8 kJ dm-3 de solução ácida neutralizada. / The development of alternative energy sources to mitigate the pollution generated by fossil fuel combustion has stimulated the search for new ways to convert and to harvest energy. Climate change, pollution, and population growth have raised concern about water scarcity. Nowadays, about 3% of the global electricity is consumed by municipal wastewater treatment plants. Humankind has to find the means to use clean and potable water more effectively. One strategy to harvest energy is to employ an ionic gradient and then convert it into electrical energy. Researchers have recently tested systems that apply electrolytic solutions containing different salt concentrations to deliver work after electrochemical cycles. Energy harvesting during wastewater treatment should encourage environmental preservation and contribute to sustainable growth. In this context, electrochemical systems are proposed, so-called photo-assisted acid-base machines, which promote energy conversion and harvesting during acidic solution neutralization under UV irradiation. Also, alternative configurations of these systems allow the desalination of salt solutions with regain of part of the used energy. Operating principle of these machines is based upon entropic variation, associated with proton and alkali ion activity changes, and in the conversion of the electromagnetic energy into electrical energy. Proof-of-concept experiments provided 108 kJ per mol of electroinserted ion, which corresponds to 10.8 kJ dm-3 of neutralized acid solution.

Tendo em vista o potencial de uso de biomassa obtida do capim-elefante como combustível de fonte renovável em regiões semiáridas, este trabalho teve por objetivo avaliar os efeitos de seis doses de nitrogênio (44, 200, 400, 600, 800 e 1000 kg.ha-1) e de sete lâminas de água (precipitação e irrigação com 0, 40, 54, 100, 135, 148 e 200% da evapotranspiração potencial da cultura - ETc) em sete idades de corte (46, 82, 112, 139, 169, 202 e 231 dias) sobre a produtividade de biomassa seca (BMS, kg.ha-1), altura (m) e índice de área foliar (IAF, m2.m-2) de capim-elefante, cultivar Cameroon. O experimento foi conduzido em Neossolo Quartzarênico localizado em Beberibe (CE), entre maio de 2012 e março de 2013. As doses de nitrogênio constituíram as parcelas e as lâminas de irrigação as subparcelas, segundo o delineamento em blocos casualizados, com quatro repetições. Os tratamentos de irrigação foram dispostos perpendicularmente e os tratamentos de doses de nitrogênio foram dispostos paralelamente à linha lateral de irrigação. Os blocos experimentais foram constituídos por 36 parcelas de 5 x 15 m e o tratamento sem irrigação (L0), com 6 doses de nitrogênio e 4 repetições, foi implantado em local separado para evitar influência da área irrigada. Como fonte de nitrogênio, utilizou-se o sulfato de amônio aplicado a lanço, parcelado em três aplicações. O manejo e a definição do momento de irrigação foi realizado por meio da determinação da capacidade de armazenamento de água no solo e do cálculo da ETc pelo método de Penman-Monteith-FAO. Em relação à BMS, o capim-elefante respondeu ao aumento da adubação nitrogenada e das lâminas de água nas 7 idades de corte avaliadas. O maior acúmulo de BMS ocorreu no tratamento combinado entre 135% ETc e 400 kg.ha-1 de N, aos 231 dias, com 239,85 kg.ha-1.dia-1. A produção de capim-elefante respondeu às lâminas de irrigação em todas as idades de corte analisadas e a maior resposta, em acúmulo diário de BMS de capim-elefante, obtida no tratamento 100% ETc aos 82 dias com 43,46 kg.ha-1.mm-1. As produtividades obtidas nos tratamentos 135, 148 e 200% ETc, a partir dos 82 até 231 dias de idades de corte, foram as maiores e não diferiram significativamente. A produção de BMS de capim-elefante não respondeu ao aumento da adubação nitrogenada isoladamente em seis idades de corte (a partir de 82 até 231) e houve resposta ao aumento da adubação nitrogenada isoladamente aos 46 dias de idade entre as doses 44 e 1000 kg.ha-1 de N, com 3780 e 5005 kg.ha-1 de BMS, respectivamente. A maior resposta, em acúmulo de BMS de capim-elefante, ocorreu no tratamento de 800 kg.ha-1 de N aos 231 dias com 15,383 kg.ha-1.kg-1 de N. O IAF e a altura do capim-elefante responderam às lâminas de água e não responderam à adubação nitrogenada. O IAF e a altura podem ser utilizados como parâmetro na estimativa de produção de BMS de capim elefante até 112 e 202 dias após o corte, respectivamente. Não houve correlação entre o IAF e altura do capim-elefante. / Due to the potential use of elephant-grass biomass as a source of renewable fuel in semi-arid regions, this study aimed to evaluate the effects of six nitrogen rates (44, 200, 400, 600, 800 and 1000 kg.ha-1) and seven irrigation levels (0, 40, 54, 100, 135, 148 and 200% of crop evapotranspiration - ETc) in seven cropping ages (46, 82, 112, 139, 169, 202 and 231 days) on elephant-grass, Cameroon cultivar, dry biomass yield (BMS, kg.ha-1), height (m) and leaf area index (LAI, m2.m-2). The trial was conducted in a Quartzipsamment soil located in Beberibe, Ceará State, Brazil, semiarid region, from May 2012 to March 2013. The nitrogen rates were the main plots and the irrigation levels comprised the subplots, according to a randomized block design with four replications. Irrigation treatments perpendicularly arranged (line source system sprynkler) and nitrogen rates were arranged in parallel to the lateral irrigation line. The experimental block consisted of 36 plots with 5 x 15 m and the treatment without irrigation (L0), with 6 nitrogen rates and 4 replications, was carried out in separate location to avoid infuence of the irrigated area. The nitrogen source was ammonium sulphate, was topdressed onto soil surface, in three split applications during the trial. The irrigation timing and management definition was performed by soil water storage capacity determination and through the Penman-Monteith-FAO crop evapotranspiration calculation. Regarding to BMS production, elephant-grass responded to nitrogen fertilization and irrigation in 7 evaluated periods, and the highest BMS (kg.ha-1.day-1) accumulation response was obtained in the combined treatment 135% ETc and 400 kg.ha-1 N at after 231 days with 239.85 kg.ha-1.day-1. Regarding to irrigation depths treatments, the elephant-grass production increased in all analyzed periods, and the largest BMS (kg.ha-1.day-1) accumulation response was found in treatment 100% ETc after 82 days with 43.46 kg.ha-1.mm-1 applied. The yield in treatments 125, 148 and 200% ETc in cutting ages from 82 to 231 days were the highest and did not differ significantly. The elephant-grass did not respond to nitrogen rates after 6 periods evaluated (82 to 231 days) however the N fertilization responded at the age of 46 days with 3.780 e 5005 kg.ha-1 de BMS between treatments of 44 e 1000 kg.ha-1 de N, respectively and the most intense BMS accumulation response was observed in treatment 800 kg.ha-1 of N at 231 days with 15,4 kg.ha-1.kg-1 N applied. The LAI and height of elephant-grass responded to water depths and did not respond to nitrogen fertilization. Both can be adopted as an elephant grass BMS yield estimation parameter from the age of 112 to 202 days after cutting, respectively. However, BMS versus LAI and LAI versus height interaction showed no correlation between the data collection periods, thus those variables should not be adopted for yield estimation purpose for this crop.

This thesis addresses the development of industries manufacturing in the renewable energy sector. As the most mature of the renewable energy technologies, it specifically assesses the development of the wind turbine manufacturing industry up to the present in order to address what lessons may be learned for the future development of the industry and for other renewable energy industries. Data is presented in the form of a number of case studies which detail the comparative successes of Denmark, Germany, Spain and the UK in encouraging the growth of wind turbine industries. Three areas of study are identified, and the data collected in the case studies applied to each. Firstly, the question of whether it is still possible for countries to stimulate national industries to successfully gain entry to the wind turbine manufacturing industry. Applying the historical data in the context of a typological theory on entrepreneurial success with regard to industrial phase, it is argued that such entry is still possible. The remaining two areas of study are linked in that they both address what lessons might be learned from the international development of the wind turbine manufacturing industry in order for the UK to replicate the success of other nations. The first of these areas specifically addresses how lessons from elsewhere might enable UK access to the wind turbine manufacturing industry. The second area addresses the extent to which experiences in the wind turbine industry might provide lessons for entrants to the industries of newer, less mature renewable energy technologies.