Microrganismos simbiontes são essenciais para a exploração de dietas de baixo valor nutricional, o desenvolvimento, crescimento e a reprodução de seus hospedeiros. Insetos que se alimentam de dieta rica em materiais celulósicos, como é o caso de cupins, apresentam protozoários e/ou bactérias associadas ao trato digestivo que auxiliam na quebra do polímero de celulose e na fixação de nitrogênio. A celulose e a hemicelulose são polímeros estruturais formados por unidades de glicose, sendo a hidrólise desses polímeros de grande interesse industrial para a produção de etanol. O modo mais eficiente de hidrolisar a celulose é pelo uso de enzimas, as celulases. Os cupins apresentam grande eficiência na digestão de celulose e hemicelulose, sendo que a compreensão do processo de digestão de celulose por esses insetos pode facilitar o desenvolvimento de tecnologia mais eficiente para a quebra desse polímero. Assim, este trabalho buscou i) isolar, identificar e caracterizar microrganismos associados ao trato digestivo dos cupins Armitermes euamignathus (Isoptera: Termitidae) e Coptotermes gestroi (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae); ii) verificar o potencial da microbiota na degradação dos principais componentes da lignocelulose (celulose, xilana e pectina); iii) caracterizar o potencial hidrolítico e determinar as condições ótimas de hidrólise (pH e temperatura das diferentes enzimas produzidas). A análise da microbiota cultivável levou à identificação de 14 filotipos para A. euamignathus e de 11 para C. gestroi, distribuídos nos quatro principais filos, Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes e Actinobacteria. A caracterização da microbiota não-cultivável levou à identificação de 17 filotipos em operários e três em soldados de A. euamignathus, enquanto que em C. gestroi foi possível identificar seis filotipos em operários e oito em soldados. O filo Firmicutes foi o mais abundante em A. euamignathus, enquanto Proteobacteria predominou em C. gestroi. O isolamento de bactérias em meio seletivo para degradação de celulose, xilana ou pectina levou à seleção de oito filotipos para A. euamignathus e cinco para C. gestroi. Extratos brutos obtidos do cultivo dessas bactérias apresentaram atividade de hidrólise de pectina e xilana, mas não celulose. Ensaios para otimização das reações de degradação indicaram a presença de enzimas que atuam em diferentes faixas de pH ótimo. Assim, a microbiota associada aos cupins estudados foi bastante diversa, apresentando ainda diferenças entre as diferentes castas desses insetos. Essa microbiota também atua em parte do processo de degradação da celulose, demonstrando o potencial que bactérias associadas ao intestino de cupins podem apresentar para a identificação de enzimas digestivas que possam ser utilizadas no processamento da celulose. / Symbionts are essential for insect hosts as they enhance the nutritional value of their host diets and support host development, growth and reproduction. Insects that feed on diets rich in cellulose, such as termites, exhibit protozoa and/or bacteria within their digestive tract that aid in breaking the cellulose and in nitrogen fixation. Cellulose and hemicellulose are polymers formed by units of glucose, and the hydrolysis of these polymers is of great industrial interest for the production of ethanol. Cellulases are the most efficient enzymes to break cellulose. Termites have a huge capacity to digest cellulose and hemicellulose; thefore, understanding the process by which they digest cellulose may allow the development of more suitable technologies devoted to the industrial utilization of cellulose. This work aimed to i) isolate, identify and characterize microorganisms associated with the digestive tract of Armitermes euamignathus (Isoptera: Termitidae) and Coptotermes gestroi (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae), ii) investigate the potential of symbionts in the degradation of the main components of lignocellulose (cellulose, xylan and pectin); iii) characterize the hydrolytic potential and determine the optimum hydrolysis conditions (pH and temperature) for the different enzymes produced. The analysis of culturable microorganisms led to the identification of 14 phylotypes for A. euamignathus and 11 for C. gestroi, which were distributed in four Phyla, Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes and Actinobacteria. The characterization of the non-culturable microbiota led to the identification of 17 phylotypes in workers and three in soldiers of A. euamignathus, while six phylotypes were identified in workers and eight in soldiers of C. gestroi. Firmicutes was the most abundant in A. euamignathus, while Proteobacteria predominated in C. gestroi. The isolation of bacteria in selective medium to degrade cellulose, xylan or pectin led to the selection of eight phylotypes from A. euamignathus and five from C. gestroi. Crude extracts obtained from the cultivation of these bacteria showed hydrolytic activity towards to xylan and pectin, but not cellulose. Assays for optimization of enzymatic reaction indicated the presence of enzymes that act at different pH ranges great. As a conclusion, symbiont diversity was quite different between the termites species and in between the castes of these species. But the microbiota isolated also acts in the degradation of cellulose, demonstrating the potential for the gut-associated bacteria of termites may present for the identification of digestive enzymes which can be used in the processing of cellulose.

Tendo em vista o potencial de uso de biomassa obtida do capim-elefante como combustível de fonte renovável em regiões semiáridas, este trabalho teve por objetivo avaliar os efeitos de seis doses de nitrogênio (44, 200, 400, 600, 800 e 1000 kg.ha-1) e de sete lâminas de água (precipitação e irrigação com 0, 40, 54, 100, 135, 148 e 200% da evapotranspiração potencial da cultura - ETc) em sete idades de corte (46, 82, 112, 139, 169, 202 e 231 dias) sobre a produtividade de biomassa seca (BMS, kg.ha-1), altura (m) e índice de área foliar (IAF, m2.m-2) de capim-elefante, cultivar Cameroon. O experimento foi conduzido em Neossolo Quartzarênico localizado em Beberibe (CE), entre maio de 2012 e março de 2013. As doses de nitrogênio constituíram as parcelas e as lâminas de irrigação as subparcelas, segundo o delineamento em blocos casualizados, com quatro repetições. Os tratamentos de irrigação foram dispostos perpendicularmente e os tratamentos de doses de nitrogênio foram dispostos paralelamente à linha lateral de irrigação. Os blocos experimentais foram constituídos por 36 parcelas de 5 x 15 m e o tratamento sem irrigação (L0), com 6 doses de nitrogênio e 4 repetições, foi implantado em local separado para evitar influência da área irrigada. Como fonte de nitrogênio, utilizou-se o sulfato de amônio aplicado a lanço, parcelado em três aplicações. O manejo e a definição do momento de irrigação foi realizado por meio da determinação da capacidade de armazenamento de água no solo e do cálculo da ETc pelo método de Penman-Monteith-FAO. Em relação à BMS, o capim-elefante respondeu ao aumento da adubação nitrogenada e das lâminas de água nas 7 idades de corte avaliadas. O maior acúmulo de BMS ocorreu no tratamento combinado entre 135% ETc e 400 kg.ha-1 de N, aos 231 dias, com 239,85 kg.ha-1.dia-1. A produção de capim-elefante respondeu às lâminas de irrigação em todas as idades de corte analisadas e a maior resposta, em acúmulo diário de BMS de capim-elefante, obtida no tratamento 100% ETc aos 82 dias com 43,46 kg.ha-1.mm-1. As produtividades obtidas nos tratamentos 135, 148 e 200% ETc, a partir dos 82 até 231 dias de idades de corte, foram as maiores e não diferiram significativamente. A produção de BMS de capim-elefante não respondeu ao aumento da adubação nitrogenada isoladamente em seis idades de corte (a partir de 82 até 231) e houve resposta ao aumento da adubação nitrogenada isoladamente aos 46 dias de idade entre as doses 44 e 1000 kg.ha-1 de N, com 3780 e 5005 kg.ha-1 de BMS, respectivamente. A maior resposta, em acúmulo de BMS de capim-elefante, ocorreu no tratamento de 800 kg.ha-1 de N aos 231 dias com 15,383 kg.ha-1.kg-1 de N. O IAF e a altura do capim-elefante responderam às lâminas de água e não responderam à adubação nitrogenada. O IAF e a altura podem ser utilizados como parâmetro na estimativa de produção de BMS de capim elefante até 112 e 202 dias após o corte, respectivamente. Não houve correlação entre o IAF e altura do capim-elefante. / Due to the potential use of elephant-grass biomass as a source of renewable fuel in semi-arid regions, this study aimed to evaluate the effects of six nitrogen rates (44, 200, 400, 600, 800 and 1000 kg.ha-1) and seven irrigation levels (0, 40, 54, 100, 135, 148 and 200% of crop evapotranspiration - ETc) in seven cropping ages (46, 82, 112, 139, 169, 202 and 231 days) on elephant-grass, Cameroon cultivar, dry biomass yield (BMS, kg.ha-1), height (m) and leaf area index (LAI, m2.m-2). The trial was conducted in a Quartzipsamment soil located in Beberibe, Ceará State, Brazil, semiarid region, from May 2012 to March 2013. The nitrogen rates were the main plots and the irrigation levels comprised the subplots, according to a randomized block design with four replications. Irrigation treatments perpendicularly arranged (line source system sprynkler) and nitrogen rates were arranged in parallel to the lateral irrigation line. The experimental block consisted of 36 plots with 5 x 15 m and the treatment without irrigation (L0), with 6 nitrogen rates and 4 replications, was carried out in separate location to avoid infuence of the irrigated area. The nitrogen source was ammonium sulphate, was topdressed onto soil surface, in three split applications during the trial. The irrigation timing and management definition was performed by soil water storage capacity determination and through the Penman-Monteith-FAO crop evapotranspiration calculation. Regarding to BMS production, elephant-grass responded to nitrogen fertilization and irrigation in 7 evaluated periods, and the highest BMS (kg.ha-1.day-1) accumulation response was obtained in the combined treatment 135% ETc and 400 kg.ha-1 N at after 231 days with 239.85 kg.ha-1.day-1. Regarding to irrigation depths treatments, the elephant-grass production increased in all analyzed periods, and the largest BMS (kg.ha-1.day-1) accumulation response was found in treatment 100% ETc after 82 days with 43.46 kg.ha-1.mm-1 applied. The yield in treatments 125, 148 and 200% ETc in cutting ages from 82 to 231 days were the highest and did not differ significantly. The elephant-grass did not respond to nitrogen rates after 6 periods evaluated (82 to 231 days) however the N fertilization responded at the age of 46 days with 3.780 e 5005 kg.ha-1 de BMS between treatments of 44 e 1000 kg.ha-1 de N, respectively and the most intense BMS accumulation response was observed in treatment 800 kg.ha-1 of N at 231 days with 15,4 kg.ha-1.kg-1 N applied. The LAI and height of elephant-grass responded to water depths and did not respond to nitrogen fertilization. Both can be adopted as an elephant grass BMS yield estimation parameter from the age of 112 to 202 days after cutting, respectively. However, BMS versus LAI and LAI versus height interaction showed no correlation between the data collection periods, thus those variables should not be adopted for yield estimation purpose for this crop.

Cette thèse se consacre à l’étude du cadre juridique de la transition énergétique depuis 2012, année depuis laquelle l’expression a connu une utilisation croissante dans le domaine des politiques publiques en matière d’énergie et d’environnement. Le champ des évolutions juridiques frappées du sceau de la transition énergétique est si vaste que ces travaux se sont concentrés sur la règlementation des énergies renouvelables électriques prééminentes que sont l’éolien terrestre et le solaire photovoltaïque. Il en ressort que le droit de la transition énergétique se situe au carrefour d’autres droits plus anciens, plus établis. De nature évolutionnaire plus que révolutionnaire, il se coule dans le cadre existant et se soumet aux principes classiques du droit. De nos travaux ressort notamment qu’il fait un usage immodéré d’instruments de planification le soumettant potentiellement à une obligation de résultats mesurables. Il est aussi amené à intégrer des considérations de justice très contemporaines, liées à sa finalité, faisant de lui davantage qu’un droit purement technique. Toutefois, il a été marqué par une confusion certaine lors du processus de rédaction de la loi relative à la transition énergétique pour la croissance verte, du fait de son volume, de ses conflits et des failles inhérentes aux institutions de la Ve République. Ce contexte n’ayant pas favorisé l’émergence d’un droit stable et de qualité, il manque de sécurité juridique. Enfin, il se révèle être plus souvent un frein qu’un facilitateur pour le développement des énergies renouvelables, alors qu’il est mal écrit et mal armé quand il s’agit d’organiser la diminution de la part du nucléaire dans le mix électrique. / This doctoral thesis aims to study the legal framework of the energy transition in France since 2012. From this year on, the term “energy transition” has been increasingly used in environment and energy-linked public policies. The scope of the legal developments related to the energy transition is so wide that this work has only focused on the rules applicable to renewable sources of electricity, especially onshore wind and solar photovoltaics. As a result, it appears that the energy transition law lies at a crossroads between older and more recognised fields of the Law. Evolutionary more than revolutionary, it fits into the existing frame and submits itself to the classical principles of Law. Among the outcomes of this research, we found that the energy transition law is making a strong use of planning tools, potentially placing it under a measurable performance obligation. It is also forced to integrate very contemporary notions of justice, linked to its finality, denying it the qualification of a solely technical law. However, there was confusion in the writing process of the Energy Transition for Green Growth Act, the flagship energy transition act, because of its size, its conflicts and the inherent flaws of the institutions of the 5th Republic. This context did not promote the emergence of a stable and high-quality law. Actually, it is lacking of legal certainty. Finally, energy transition law is more often than not placing a break on than facilitating the development of renewable energy, while it is badly written and ill-equipped to organise the decrease of nuclear energy into the electrical mix.

The nominal power of single Wind Energy Conversion Systems has been steadily growing, reaching power ratings close to 10 MW. In the power conversion stage, medium-voltage power converters are replacing the conventional low-voltage back-to-back topology. Modular Multilevel Converters have appeared as a promising solution for Multi-MW WECSs due to their characteristics such as modularity, reliability and the capability to reach high nominal voltages. Thereby, this thesis discusses the application of the Modular Multilevel Matrix Converter to drive Multi-MW Wind Energy Conversion Systems (WECSs). The modelling and control systems required for this application are extensively analysed and discussed in this document. The proposed control strategies enable decoupled operation of the converter, providing maximum power point tracking capability at the generator-side, grid-code compliance and Low Voltage Ride Through Control at the grid-side and good steady-state and dynamic performance for balancing the capacitor voltages of the converter. The effectiveness of the proposed control strategies is validated through simulations and experimental results. Simulation results are obtained with a 10MW, 6.6 kV Modular Multilevel Matrix Converter based WECS model developed in PLECS software. Additionally, a 5 kVA downscale prototype has been designed and constructed during this Ph.D. The downscale prototype is composed of 27 H-Bridges power cells. The system is controlled using a Digital Signal Processor connected to three Field Programmable Gate Array which are equipped with 50 analogue-digital channels and 108 gate drive signals. Two programmable AMETEK power supplies emulate the electrical grid and the generator. The wind turbine dynamics is programmed in the generator-side power supply to emulate a generator operating in variable speed/voltage mode. The output port of the Modular Multilevel Matrix Converter is connected to another power source which can generate programmable grid sag-swell conditions. Simulation and experimental results for variable-speed operation, grid-code compliance, and capacitor voltage regulation have confirmed the successful operation of the Modular Multilevel Matrix Converter based WECSs. In all the experiments, the proposed control systems ensure proper capacitor voltage balancing, keeping the flying capacitor voltages bounded and with low ripple. Additionally, the performance of the generator-side and grid-side control system have been validated for Maximum Power Point Tracking and Low-Voltage Ride Through, respectively.

Magister Legum - LLM

Many communities around the world have no access to an electricity grid. To supply power to these people, stand-alone power systems are often used, the majority of which are based on diesel generators. Rising fuel costs and environmental concerns make the use of renewable energy in stand-alone systems increasingly attractive. The research reported in this thesis was to demonstrate a stand-alone power system based exclusively on renewable energy sources. To achieve this, a DC electrical backbone is used. Power electronic converters are used to interconnect the loads and generators and hydrogen is used as an inter-seasonal energy store. The design and control of the DC based stand-alone power system forms the primary focus of this research. A demonstration system has been implemented at West Beacon Farm in the UK. Substantial data has been collected that confirms the successful operation of the system.

Marine Renewable Energy (MRE) in the form of wave, tidal and offshore wind has emerged as a potentially major component of strategies to reduce carbon dioxide emissions and combat climate change. One factor influencing the implementation of MRE technologies is acceptance by people living near developments. This study investigated (i) attitudes towards MRE in small island communities as likely host communities for MRE developments; (ii) the underlying factors and values shaping these attitudes; (iii) how communities viewed MRE with regard to their place attachments; (iv) the inclusion of communities attitudes into MRE decision-making; and (v) contributions to policy and practice of MRE development. Data were collected using a mixed-methods approach, employing questionnaire surveys and interviews in three case study communities: 1) the Orkney Islands in Scotland which have considerable experience with MRE; 2) the Shetland Islands, also a Scottish community but with somewhat less experience; and 3) the Isles of Scilly, an English community with limited MRE experience. These study sites provided an opportunity to examine attitudes towards MRE in areas with different levels of MRE experience and differing government administrations and consenting procedures, thus offering novel insights into how local contexts shape attitudes towards MRE. The theoretical position adopted was place attachment, and the study made steps towards understanding how place attachment processes operate when people evaluate MRE development locally. Processes of place attachment were found to be based on a continuous flow of interactions between people and places based on an evaluation of what happens in specific local contexts and how these are valued against sets of local priorities and preferences. The study found generally positive attitudes towards MRE, and identified local context, place-based values and the perceived effects of MRE as dominant in shaping support. The study thus found two important contributors that shaped attitudes: (i) local references and influences through which people observed issues, including socio-historical references, relational factors, and pragmatic factors, and (ii) local values, through which MRE was evaluated, which were established by residents based on evaluations of local characteristics, and how they related to strategies to maintain the long-term community continuity, and whether they were considered to be a threat, and therefore, a priority for continuity or for change. Based on these factors, a heuristic model was developed to visualise how attitudes towards MRE developed based on local contexts. Although complex interplays of local factors were observed, support for MRE development was largely based on its perceived local socio-economic benefits and perceptions of minimal environmental disruption. To incorporate local attitudes into decision-making, a place-based approach instead of a technology-based approach was advocated in which community priorities becomes the first focal point of siting processes. This approach is based both on the identified importance of local context for engaging the community and on ensuring appropriate siting based on engagement processes in which communities are appropriately represented and processes are tailored to local circumstances. An added important benefit from such an approach is that it allows for the inclusion of local knowledge and expertise in MRE siting.

This paper investigates the factors limiting financial investments in renewable energy. A qualitative research study was conducted on South African based financial investors in renewable energy technologies with the intention of identifying investment barriers. The methodology employed involved a literature review. In addition, a questionnaire was designed and interviews were conducted to ascertain the prevalence of such investment barriers in a South African context. The results obtained were analysed using both qualitative and quantitative methods. These analyses revealed that the barriers that were identified namely political, economic, social and technological are valid for South Africa. In addition, several other barriers were identified that are specific to South Africa, such as education, poverty, technological readiness and access to the electricity grid. On the basis of the findings some recommendations are made which include building closer relationships between government and the private sector, as well as ensuring that government maintains an active role in promoting the renewable energy industry. Copyright / Dissertation (MBA)--University of Pretoria, 2011. / Gordon Institute of Business Science (GIBS) / unrestricted

The continual increase in industrialization and global population has increased the dependency and demand on traditional fossil fuels for energy; however, there are limited amounts of fossil fuels available. The slow depletion of fossil fuels has sparked a fresh interest in renewable sources such as lignocellulose to produce a variety of biofuels, such as biogases (e.g. methane), bioethanol, biodiesel and a variety of other solvents and economically valuable by-products. Agricultural crop wastes produced in surplus are typically lignocellulosic in composition and thus partially recalcitrant to enzymatic degradation. The recalcitrant nature of plant biomass and the inability to obtain complete enzymatic hydrolysis has led to the establishment of various pre-treatment strategies. Alkaline pre-treatments increase the accessibility of the exposed surface to enzymatic hydrolysis through the removal of acetyl and uronic acid substituents on hemicellulose. Unlike the use of steam and acid pre-treatments, alkaline pre-treatments solubilize lignin and a small percentage of the hemicellulose, increasing enzyme accessibility and thus the hydrolysis of lignocellulose. The majority of Clostridium cellulovorans associated enzyme synergy studies have been devoted to an understanding of the cellulolytic and hemi-cellulolytic degradation of plant cell walls. However, little is known about the effect of various physical and chemical pre-treatments on the synergistic enzymatic degradation of plant biomass and possible depolymerization of plant cell walls. This study investigates the use of slake lime, sodium hydroxide and ammonium hydroxide to pre-treat sugarcane bagasse under mild conditions and elucidates potentially important synergistic associations between the C. cellulovorans enzymes for the enhanced degradation of lignocellulose. The primary aims of the study were addressed using of a variety of techniques. This included suitable vector constructs for the expression and purification of recombinant C. cellulovorans enzymes, identification of the effects of various pre-treatments on enzyme synergy, and identification of the resultant reducing sugars and phenolic compounds (released during the pre-treatment of the bagasse). This study also made use of physical and chemical pre-treatment methods, protein purification using affinity, high performance liquid and thin layer chromatography, mass spectrometry, sodium dodecyl sulphate and fluorophore-assisted polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (FACE) , enzymatic degradation and synergy studies with various substrates indirectly using the 3, 4-dinitrosalicylic acid (DNS) reducing sugar assay. From this investigation, the following conclusions were made: alkaline pre-treatment successfully solublised, redistributed and removed lignin from the bagasse, increasing the digestibility of the substrates. In summary, the most effective pre-treatment employed 0.114 M ammonium hydroxide / gram bagasse at 70°C for 36 hours, followed by hydrolysis with an enzyme cocktail containing 25% ManA and 75% XynA. This increased the production of sugars approximately 13-fold. Analysis of the sugars produced by the synergistic hydrolysis of sugarcane bagasse (SCB) indicated the presence of xylose, indicating that the enzymes are potentially bifunctional under certain conditions. This study indicated that the use of mild pre-treatment conditions sufficiently removed a large portion of lignin without affecting the hemicellulose moiety of the SCB. This facilitated the potential use of the hemicellulose component for the production of valuable products (e.g. xylitol) in addition to the production of bioethanol. Thus, the potential use of additional components of holocellulose may generate an additional biotechnological benefit and allow a certain degree of flexibility in the biofuel industry, depending on consumer and industrial needs.

The threat of climate change has led to many countries and regions adopting renewable targets. Scotland's is one of the most ambitious, with an aim to generate the equivalent to 100% of its electricity needs from renewable sources by 2020. Scotland has a very large renewable resource, primarily consisting of offshore and onshore wind, tidal stream, wave and hydro power; all of which are characterised by having variable output. Over a long period, such as a year, variability in renewable generation will average out and may meet or exceed total annual demand. This thesis investigates whether matching of demand and generation is possible within a timescale meaningful to electricity system users; that is whether renewable generation can meet electricity demand in any given hour. This was established by using historic data to create an hourly generation hindcast of Scotland's renewable generation over a 30 year climate “normal” period. These outputs are then compared to a hindcast of hourly demand based on observations over the most recent few years. The results demonstrated that it is possible for Scotland to rely entirely upon renewable generation to fulfil demand in any hour of the 30 year hindcast. However, it appears that the renewable capacity and storage currently built or within the Scottish planning system is only sufficient to match demand in 65% of the hours within the hindcast. The hindcast allows judgements to be made as to how 100% of demand could be met most effectively and provides the basis of a coherent planning strategy, with security of supply at its centre. Further wave and tidal stream capacity is shown to be of higher value than additional wind power but in the latter case, addressing the geographical diversity of wind power can enable maximise phasing between sites to increase the security of supply. Importantly this work provides a means of informing decision making about where best to develop wind, wave and tidal resources and what additional storage may be required in order to provide 100% security of supply. The results are also of particular importance to Scotland's renewable generation strategy in the case of assessing where new on- and off-shore wind farms should be developed, as wind is set to dominate Scotland's renewable portfolio for the foreseeable future.