Today's utilities face new challenges due to the continually increasing penetration of residential solar and other distributed, stochastic generation sources. In order to maintain balance and stability in the grid without building costly, large-scale generation plants, utilities are turning to distributed energy resources for use in demand response programs. Demand response is a cost-efficient way to balance grid load/generation without the need for increased capital investment in traditional generation resources. Demand response programs are excellent exploiters of end-user devices that otherwise further accentuate the daily load curve and thus, add to the difficulties created by daily load peaks. Electric water heaters are excellent candidates for use in demand response programs for a variety of reason. One, electric water heaters represent a large portion of daily household loads due to their high nominal power ratings (1.5 kW - 5.5kW), and frequent use estimated to account for approximately one third of all daily residential power demand. Two, they are composed of strictly resistive elements, which greatly simplifies modeling, aggregation and control. And third, they can be used for load "shedding" during periods of high electrical demand as well as load "absorbing" during periods of excess generation due to their thermal storage capabilities. With improved access and control, electric water heaters could become a major distributed energy resource for utilities. In order to properly control and use a distributed energy resource, it is important to know how these resources operate and their patterns of behavior in different environments. This thesis presents a single-element, single mass electric water heater model for analyzing the effectiveness of using electric water heaters as distributed energy resources and for participation in demand response programs. The CTA-2045 communication protocol was used for testing demand response signals. The electric water heater is modeled in Python and the communication pathway was built in C++ and Python.

Two experiments have been conducted to ascertain if a cell with a palladium cathode, a platinum anode, and a solution of H2SO4 in D2O can produce excess heat under electrolysis compared to a similar cell with H2O. In each experiment, two cells were connected in series with constant current. The two cells were identical except for the fact that the heavy water cell used D2O instead of H2O in the electrolyte. Both cells in each experiment employed Pd cathodes, Pt anodes, and H2SO4 in the solution. On a piece of Pd foil that had been cold-rolled and cleaned like the cathodes but had not been electrolyzed, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive spectrometry (EDS) failed to find any traces of unexpected elements. In the first experiment the indication was that the light water cell was slightly warmer despite receiving slightly less power. Small amounts of silver were found on both cathodes after electrolysis. In the second experiment, the D2O cell produced an excess heat relative to the H2O cell that was too large by at least an order of magnitude to be explainable by chemical reactions or mechanical artifacts. After electrolysis, it was found that Cd was present on the surface of the H2O cathode at levels of concentration that were variable but generally no less than 4% relative to Pd (above 3σ). The H2O cathode of this second experiment finished electrolysis very straight. The D2O cell cathode finished severely arched (~30o), with its convex side facing the anode, and covered in a deposit of powdery black substance which was most likely PdS formed accidentally on the first day of this experiment when the D2O cell had been run with the wrong polarity. On this D2O cell cathode, no statistically significant traces of Cd were detected but Ag was present in 2-5% concentration relative to Pd. In some spots, the Ag abundance surpassed 20% that of Pd. The most likely explanation is neutron-induced nuclear transmutation of some of the Pd nuclides with direct release of heat into the solid-state lattice.

From the steady rise in dairy farm closures to concerns over algae blooms in Lake Champlain, Vermont’s dairy industry is facing a multitude of challenges. While many potential solutions have been proposed, this study focuses specifically on community anaerobic digester systems (CADS) to aid in manure management, help to mitigate runoff, produce renew energy, and even provide an alternative revenue source to participating farms. CADS technology converts the gas emissions from manure and other organic substances into biogas through a process called anaerobic digestion. Unlike traditional on-farm biodigesters, which are often only financially viable for the largest dairy farms, CADS are able to accept both manure from multiple dairy farms and food waste from the surrounding community. In Vermont, consumers can purchase biogas-produced electricity from biodigesters in the state for an additional cost through Green Mountain Power’s Cow Power program. However, little research has been conducted regarding the success of CADS-produced electricity on the consumer market. This thesis focuses on two surveys conducted in Randolph, Vermont and Addison County exploring attitudes of local biodigesters in relation to other renewable energy sources available to consumers, as well as issues related to composting and recycling. The objective of this study is to provide policy makers and biodigester operators a better understanding of community attitudes of biodigesters compared to other renewable energy systems, as well as willingness to participate in paid services that could support the operation of the biodigesters. In 2017, a survey was distributed to households in Randolph, the location of the Vermont Technical College CADS, through the local newspaper. A second survey was also conducted in 2019, distributed via newspaper to residents in Addison County, a dairy county home to four operational biodigesters. Results from the 2017 survey suggest that there is generally a low willingness to pay for the Cow Power program and food waste removal services that support biodigesters, although targeted educational approaches focusing on how CADS benefit the community may improve attitudes towards them. The 2019 survey shows similar levels of willingness to participate and pay, although attitudes of biodigesters and public support for anaerobic digester technology were considerably higher. Through educational outreach efforts, community acceptance of biodigesters can be improved to avoid cancellation of projects due to lack of community support.

One of the biggest threats to the power systems as critical infrastructures is large-scale blackouts resulting from cascading failures (CF) in the grid. The ongoing shift in energy portfolio due to ever-increasing penetration of renewable energy sources (RES) may drive the electric grid closer to its operational limits and introduce a large amount of uncertainty coming from their stochastic nature. One worrisome change is the increase in CFs. The CF simulation models in the literature do not allow consideration of RES penetration in studying the grid vulnerability. In this dissertation, we have developed tools and models to evaluate the impact of RE penetration on grid vulnerability to CF. We modeled uncertainty injected from different sources by analyzing actual high-resolution data from North American utilities. Next, we proposed two CF simulation models based on simplified DC power flow and full AC power flow to investigate system behavior under different operating conditions. Simulations show a dramatic improvement in the line flow uncertainty estimation based on the proposed model compared to the simplified DC OPF model. Furthermore, realistic assumptions on the integration of RE resources have been made to enhance our simulation technique. The proposed model is benchmarked against the historical blackout data and widely used models in the literature showing similar statistical patterns of blackout size.

In this research paper, review of world geothermal energy production and their capacity is shown. Here, a research is conducted to know the potential and possibility of geothermal energy in India. All the geothermal province with their geographical locations are shown and a brief calculation is conducted in order to show the potential of the particular province. As India is having the low temperature geothermal fields, binary geothermal plants are used for this analysis and results are calculated by using R134a as a working fluid at different temperatures. The results are sufficient to prove the potential of geothermal energy in India.  Importance of Ground Source Heat Pump (GSHP) and power savings by its contribution over traditional heating and cooling methods is shown statistically. 9 different states of India are divided by their climatic condition, severe winter and moderate winter to calculate the heat demand in those states. Also, for the cold demands these states are considered to be same as per the climatic situation in summer. Then, comparison is done between GSHP and the traditional heating and cooling systems. The result shows the drastic power saving by using GSHP for space heating as well as cooling, over electric heater and air conditioner respectively.

Uncertainty about anaerobic digestion process stability is the main issue preventing more widespread use of the process as a source of energy recovery in wastewater treatment facilities. The overall objective of this research was to study the feasibility of enhancing biogas production inside wastewater facilities using co-digestion of municipal sludge with bakery waste. Another objective was to improve the stability index and a mathematical model that can be useful tools to predict the process stability of municipal sludge digestion alone, and when it is mixed with bakery waste, as a substrate for microorganisms. Experiments were conducted in three phases. In phase 1, a full-scale anaerobic digester at Central Weber Sewer Improvement District, Ogden, UT, receiving a mixture of primary and secondary sludge, was monitored for one hundred days. Chemical oxygen demand (COD), and volatile solids (VS) mass balances were conducted to evaluate the stability of the digester and its capability of producing methane gas. The COD mass balance accounted for nearly 90% of the methane gas produced while the VS mass balance showed that 91% of the organic matter removed resulted in biogas formation. Other parameters monitored included: pH, alkalinity, VFA, and propionic acid. The values of these parameters showed that the digester was running under stable steady state conditions. At mesophilic temperature, the stability index was determined and equal to 0.40 L (CH4)/ g(ΔVS) In phase 2, the feasibility of adding BW to MS was tested in batch reactors scale. The biogas production was enhanced and the digester was stable until the range of 37- 40% of BW to 63-60% of MS. The ADM1 coefficients were modified to accurately predict the digester performance. The modified model outputs (pH, VFA, and methane) were within acceptable ranges when compared with the observed data from the batch reactors. In phase 3, the feasibility of MS and BW were tested using an Induced Bed Reactor (IBR) with a 50:50% ratio of MS:BW (COD basis). The process was stable during different hydraulic retention times and the ADM1 was modified to predict the stability of the process in the IBR.

The goal of the Non-Traditional Agronomic Land (NTAL) Project is to develop sustainable, agronomic, crop growth methods that will allow biofuel feedstock production to occur on marginal or non-traditional plots of land, e.g., roadways, railroads, airports, and military installations. Recent economic feasibility models by Utah State University (USU) indicate these lands could, in theory, produce one billion gallons of economically viable new feedstock annually. Specifically, USU models show that if 60 % (600 pounds/acre) of dry land oilseed can be produced, maintenance costs of these NTALs can be recovered, as well as production of approximately 25 gallons/acre of renewable biodiesel. This feedstock yield would increase U.S. biodiesel production between 100- 200 %, and save federal and state agencies substantial financial resources. Preliminary impact considerations that have been taken into account for production on non-traditional land include: safety, structural integrity, economics, wildlife impacts, ecology/environmental impacts, water quality and grower concerns, soil quality, water use, generation/reduction of hazardous/toxic substances, air emissions, wastewater discharges, and reductions in use of pesticides and fertilizer. Canola and Safflower plots were established in 2007 and 2008 along roadsides in four different regions of the Utah I-15 corridor. Harsh climatic conditions with above average temperatures and below average precipitation existed in both years. Less than 50 % average yields for safflower and 25 % average yields for canola under normal climatic conditions were produced. Roadside plots all yielded under 200 pounds/acre of seed for both crops. In 2008, seeds were placed 2 inches deep during planting to position them closer to moisture, and no measureable yield was observed for any crops in control plots planted on traditional farmland and less than 10 pounds/acre in roadside plots. We found that it was not economical to grow oilseed crops for biodiesel production along Utah roadsides under the climatic conditions experienced during 2007- 2008 while using a Tye Pasture Pleaser No-Till Drill. (98 Pages)

Perovskite-type oxides show irrefutable potential for feasible thermochemical solar-driven CO2 conversion. These materials exhibit the exact characteristics required by the low temperature reverse water-gas shift chemical looping process. These properties include structural endurance and high oxygen redox capacity, which results in the formation of numerous oxygen vacancies, or active sites for CO2 conversion. A major drawback is the decrease in oxygen self-diffusion with increasing perovskite particle size. In this study, the La0.75Sr0.25FeO3 (LSF) perovskite oxide was combined with various supports including popular redox materials CeO2 and ZrO2 along with more abundant alternatives such as Al2O3, SiO2, and TiO2, in view of its potential application at industrial scale. Supporting LSF on SiO2 by 25% mass resulted in the largest increase of 150% in CO yields after reduction at 600 °C. This result was a repercussion of significantly reduced perovskite particle size confirmed by SEM/TEM imaging and Scherrer analyses of XRD patterns. Minor secondary phases were observed during the solid-state reactions at the interface of SiO2 and TiO2. Density functional theory-based calculations, coupled with experiments, revealed oxygen vacancy formation only on the perovskite phase at these low temperatures of 600 °C. The role of each metal oxide support towards suppressing or enhancing the CO2 conversion has been elucidated. Through utilization of SiO2, the reverse water-gas shift chemical looping process using perovskite-based composites was significantly improved.

Aquaculture had already been distinguished as an important component of global food security and economics. However, aquaculture has expanded at the cost of natural resources and the environment. The vulnerability of the aquaculture industry due to the consequences of global environmental changes and energy price fluctuations has been addressed in various studies. The identification, planning, and implementation of sustainable energy systems are important to ensure the long term economic and environmental sustainability of aquaculture. This research investigated sustainable energy systems for aquaculture using a life cycle approach, allowing for the identification of the most sustainable energy options under different geographical and economic contexts. This also provides useful insights for the sustainable development of aquaculture with energy systems. The main objectives were to develop a statistical model for energy intensity of aquaculture (Chapter 2) and a user-friendly tool that can assist in the decision making of choosing the sustainable energy systems in aquaculture (Chapter 3), and to investigate the applicability of solar hot water systems for aquaculture (Chapter 4) and the potential improvement of the sustainability performance of aquaculture with energy systems (Chapter 5). In the first task, the main influencing factors on the energy use of aquaculture were investigated via a statistical analysis method. Results showed that natural trophic level of species, culture technology, culture system intensity, and local climatic conditions are important factors. With the key variables, an energy intensity prediction model was developed and applied to explore an energy efficient growth strategy for global aquaculture. Energy use in future global aquaculture would be significantly reduced with a selective extensification of global aquaculture. Also, climate change with consideration of temperature and precipitation would help reduce the energy use of global aquaculture as warm climate zones are more dominant in major aquaculture producing countries. In the second task, an MS-Excel based decision support tool was developed to assist the selection of environmentally and economically sustainable energy systems (single source or hybrid sources) in aquaculture. Through a case study, the most sustainable energy options for U.S. aquaponics systems were investigated, considering different geographical and economic contexts in five U.S. states (FL, HI, WA, LA, and ME). Results showed that solar systems (solar photo-voltaic and solar hot water heater) could be the most sustainable energy options for U.S. aquaponics due to their low environmental impacts and economic benefits. In the third task, results showed that heating strategies, setting (indoor or outdoor), and local climatic conditions played a pivotal role in determining the environmental and economic impacts of solar hot water systems in aquaculture. The lowest environmental impact was found with a 20% heating strategy for outdoor aquaculture systems under hot climate conditions, while the most economical case was found with an 80% heating strategy for indoor aquaculture systems under moderate climate conditions. Further improvements of environmental and economic performances could be achieved with consideration of water source (groundwater and surface) and design (horizontally fixed or optimally tilted solar thermal collector). In the fourth task, environmental and economic impacts of alternative energy systems were obtained using the tool which was developed in the second task. Results showed that local geographical and weather characteristics, local energy prices, and incentive availability were important parameters to determine the sustainability performance of alternative energy systems in aquaculture. The use of renewable energy was more sustainable than conventional energy systems in the regions where there are favorable geographical conditions, high electricity and fuel prices, and incentives. The use of solar photovoltaic with a thin-film technology was the most sustainable electricity generation options in most states of the U.S., while the use of natural gas boilers was the most sustainable heating options in most states of the U.S. The sustainability performance of the solar photovoltaic systems can be further improved through either a technological advancement or an incentive, while financial support is more effective for solar hot water systems. The application of anaerobic digestion as a backup system in general will reduce the sustainability of hybrid heating system; however, the hybrid biogas-diesel heating system has better sustainability performance compared with a diesel heating system if it is used for medium to large scale fish farms. This research provides an understanding of energy use characteristics of current aquaculture systems, and insights for the planning of sustainable energy supply systems in aquaculture, considering different growth strategies, effects of climate change, and alternative energy systems with various operational strategies and design factors. Furthermore, the decision-making tool was made to be accessible to fish farmers, state-wide planners, and regulators.

The water supplies of some small inland communities may come in the form of river systems that offer brackish water. Not fit for immediate human consumption, the water can be further processed using reverse osmosis to be converted into drinking water.In very remote areas there are limited energy resources, and for those areas that lie beyond a municipal distribution grid, renewable energy sources may be used. A reverse osmosis system that operates from the limited power generated by a renewable energy system must do so with the utmost of efficiency. Three methods in improving the efficiency of small-scale reverse-osmosis system are investigated, namely high-pressure pump speed control, feed water heating and vacuum pump based energy recovery.