Orientador: Denis José Schiozer / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Mecânica e Instituto de Geociências / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-28T14:19:52Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Pimenta_RaquelRibeiroGomes_M.pdf: 41409019 bytes, checksum: 19305e480d226d75f53cde7de5f86b95 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014 / Resumo: O sucesso econômico de projetos e o desenvolvimento de campos de petróleo dependem não só de atributos de reservatório como também de estratégias de produção. Em reservatórios naturalmente fraturados uma combinação de atributos como: conectividade de fraturas alta, influxo de aquífero forte e molhabilidade variável com parâmetros de projetos como injeção de água, podem resultar na chegada antecipada de água e até mesmo no fracasso do projeto. Os atributos de reservatórios geralmente não são conhecidos no momento da elaboração dos projetos quando a maior parte do investimento é efetuada; para campos marítimos, há ainda pouca flexibilidade para mudanças ao longo do tempo. A avaliação do risco envolvido então se torna muito importante. O resultado de projetos com reservatórios naturalmente fraturados depende muito da estratégia de produção, principalmente do número e da localização de poços. A otimização destes parâmetros aumenta a produção de óleo e a rentabilidade dos projetos. Esta dissertação apresenta uma metodologia de seleção de estratégia de produção que incorpora a análise de risco. As incertezas de reservatório são quantificadas e são selecionados três modelos para representar a variabilidade técnica e financeira. Estes modelos são usados como apoio para a seleção de estratégias de produção sob incertezas. Para este fim, primeiro se faz uma análise de risco onde se escolhem os denominados modelos de reservatórios variados, depois se escolhe uma estratégia de produção através de um estudo comparativo com diferentes métodos de explotação e, por fim, faz-se um estudo da robustez da estratégia escolhida para cada caso através da realização de uma análise de incerteza. No estudo comparativo de estratégias de produção são avaliados os métodos de depleção, injeção de água, gás, água e gás e alternada de água e gás e cada estratégia citada acima é otimizada de maneira assistida. Conclui-se que o estudo atinge o objetivo principal, já que a estratégia de injeção de água e gás é escolhida como a melhor estratégia de produção através da aplicação da metodologia de análise de risco. Esta estratégia é escolhida porque tem o maior valor presente líquido, o menor risco financeiro e ainda apresenta flexibilidade de projeto / Abstract: Economical results of an oilfield development depend on both reservoir attributes and strategy selection. For instance, water injection implementation in naturally fractured reservoir can result in early water production and poor economical results if this reservoir has high fracture connectivity, aquifer influx and mixed wettability. Reservoir attributes are generally unknown at the beginning of the project, when most of the investment is made. Since there is no much flexibility for changes during a life cycle of an offshore field, risk analysis is very important at this moment. Optimization of project parameters such as production strategy, well number and well location usually increase oil production and project profitability. This study presents a methodology to select the best production strategy incorporating risk analysis. Reservoir uncertainties are evaluated and all technical and financial variability are resumed in three models. This task is performed using the following steps: risk analysis where three models are selected among five hundred; production strategies comparison and finally a robust test using a complete risk analysis for all three models. The evaluations of the following production strategies are performed: depletion, water injection, gas injection, water and gas injection and water alternating gas injection. Each strategy is optimized using assisted technics and the best economical result is selected for development. This study results are successful and concludes that water and gas injection is the best strategy for this reservoir since it has the highest net present value, the lowest financial risk and adds project flexibility because it injects two different fluids / Mestrado / Reservatórios e Gestão / Mestra em Ciências e Engenharia de Petróleo

An integrated stratigraphic analysis of a ~350 ft drill core from Upton County (Texas) has revealed pervasive variability of several key siliciclastic and carbonate lithofacies in vertical section, where organic-rich siliceous mudrock beds alternate with aluminum-rich mudrocks and calcareous gravity flow deposits. Sediment chemistry, especially major and trace elements derived from x-ray fluorescence, captures this variability with high sensitivity. The high frequency chemostratigraphic variability appears to be cyclic, and it is interpreted to represent the first example of deep-water Late Pennsylvanian cyclothems for the Midland Basin. Positive trace metal (Mo, Cr) correlations to total organic carbon and gamma ray response in siliceous mudrocks, in conjunction with abundant pyrite, indicate bottom-water anoxia and possibly euxinia within the basin. The influence of glacial ice-sheets on the water level of the global ocean, in concert with local oceanographic gradients, regional tectonics, and tropical paleoclimate, constitute the primary controls on lithofacies and chemostratigraphy. The results of this study have implications for understanding the depositional history of the Midland Basin, as well as for identifying horizontal drilling zones for resource development.

Enligt det kunskapsbaserade perspektivet är kunskap organisationens viktigaste resurs. Inom dagens organisationer har olika enheter möjligheter att lära av varandra och dra nytta av den kunskapsmängd som genereras internt. För att detta ska lyckas krävs effektiva och utvecklade processer för kunskapsöverföring. I den genomförda studien undersöks hur kunskap överförs mellan systemutvecklingsteam under ett skifte från en vattenfallsmetodik till en agil metodik på företaget Folksam. Uppsatsen syftar även till att besvara vilka faktorer som främjar och hindrar kunskapsöverföring under ett metodikskifte. Med anledning av att allt fler organisationer övergår till en agil projektmetodik samt att forskningen inom den studerade kontexten är begränsad, anses en studie inom området väl motiverad. Studiens teoretiska ramverk tar sin utgångspunkt i kunskapsbegreppet där en diskussion kring de två dominerande kunskapsepistemologierna mynnar ut i uppsatsens förståelse för kunskapsbegreppet. Vidare diskuteras hur kunskapsöverföring kan förstås genom modifiering och förflyttning av kunskapsreservoarer, vilka utgörs av organisationens individer, verktyg och aktiviteter. Ramverket inkluderar också teorier rörande faktorer som påverkar kunskapsöverföring. Den insamlade empirin består huvudsakligen av intervjuer och observationer och visar att kunskapsöverföring mellan team sker i relativt liten utsträckning samt att de tillfällen då kunskap har överförts till stor del organiserats av de agila coacher som Folksam har konsulterat. Kunskapsöverföring främjas på grund av den liknande teamkontexten och på grund av den kunskapsstruktur som den agila metodiken medför, men hindras i och med att teamen inte är motiverade till eller inser värdet av kunskapsöverföring, vilket har sin grund i att teamen har kommit olika långt i övergången till den nya metodiken. / According to the knowledge-based view of the firm, knowledge is an organizations’ most important resource. In today’s organizations, different units have the opportunity to learn from each other and make use of the knowledge that is being generated internally. However, in order for this to succeed there is a need for effective and well-developed processes for the transfer of knowledge. In the performed study, research has been done on how knowledge is transferred between system development teams during a shift from a waterfall methodology to an agile methodology at the company Folksam. The paper also aims to answer what factors that facilitate and what factors that impede knowledge transfer during a methodology shift. As an increasing numbers of organizations change to an agile methodology and previous research within the specific context is limited, a study within the area is well motivated. The theoretical framework is based on the concept of knowledge itself where a discussion of the two dominating epistemological perspectives is concluded in the thesis understanding of knowledge. Further, knowledge transfer is being defined as either a modification or transfer of knowledge reservoirs, comprised by the organization’s individuals, tools and activities and in which knowledge is embedded. The theoretical framework also includes factors influencing knowledge transfer. The empirical foundation consists mainly of interviews and observations and shows that inter-team knowledge transfer is limited, and that the occasions where transfer does take place are generally organized by the agile coaches consulted by Folksam. When knowledge transfer takes place it is facilitated by the similar team context and by the knowledge structure entailed by the agile methodology, but impeded by the team members not being motivated or able to realize the benefits with knowledge transfer, which is rooted in the teams being in different stages of the transition to the new methodology.

Reservoir management strategies traditionally attempt to combine and balance complex geophysical, petrophysical, thermodynamic and economic factors to determine an optimal method to recover hydrocarbons from a given reservoir. Reservoir simulators have traditionally been too large and run times too long to allow for rigorous solution in conjunction with an optimization algorithm. It has also proven very difficult to marry an optimizer with the large set of nonlinear partial differential equations required for accurate reservoir simulation. A simple capacitance-resistance model (CRM) that characterizes the connectivity between injection and production wells can determine an injection scheme maximizes the value of the reservoir asset. Model parameters are identified using linear and nonlinear regression. The model is then used together with a nonlinear optimization algorithm to compute a set of future injection rates which maximize discounted net profit. This research demonstrates that this simple dynamic model provides an excellent match to historic data. Based on three case studies examining actual reservoirs, the optimal injection schemes based on the capacitance-resistive model yield a predicted increase in hydrocarbon recovery of up to 60% over the extrapolated exponential historic decline. An advantage of using a simple model is its ability to describe large reservoirs in a straightforward way with computation times that are short to moderate. However, applying the CRM to large reservoirs with many wells presents several new challenges. Reservoirs with hundreds of wells have longer production histories – new wells are created, wells are shut in for varying periods of time and production wells are converted to injection wells. Additionally, ensuring that the production data to which the CRM is fit are free from contamination or corruption is important. Several modeling techniques and heuristics are presented that provide a simple, accurate reservoir model that can be used to optimize the value of the reservoir over future time periods. In addition to optimizing reservoir performance by allocating injection, this research presents a few methods that use the CRM to find optimal well locations for new injectors. These algorithms are still in their infancy and represent the best ideas for future research. / text

Fractures can increase the permeability and producability of reservoirs by acting as fluid and gas conduits to wells. Networks of fractures are most important in reservoirs where little to no matrix permeability exists such as tight gas sandstones. Two significant variables, fracture length and the abundance of fractures, are not readily measurable from subsurface observations such as those obtained from cores or well logs. Numerical models suggest natural fracture apertures and lengths follow systematic power-law (Marrett, 1996; Olson, 2007) and negative exponential distributions (Olson, 2004); fracture trace lengths are interrogated. This study tests those propositions through study of fractures in outcrop. Outcrops of the Cretaceous Frontier Formation at Oyster Ridge in southwest Wyoming and Oil Mountain near Casper, in central Wyoming provide evidence of reservoir scale fracture networks in sandstones. In the subsurface the Frontier Formation sandstones are reservoirs that produce gas and oil in several Wyoming basins. I mapped fracture patterns at twenty locations at Oyster Ridge and Oil Mountain and measured fracture trace length distributions and abundance (intensity). Fracture cumulative length distribution plots illustrate systematic length distributions. Trace length distributions of every fracture network follow negative exponential distributions regardless of the number of fractures (N = 39 to N = 394) or the size of the outcrop (1.3 to 710 m²). Results show that the fractures follow a negative exponential distribution over a range of lengths of a few centimeters to tens of meters. These trace length distributions are consistent with geomechanical model fracture pattern simulation results by Olson (2004) that suggests negative exponential trace length distribution result from fracture to fracture interaction during fracture formation. Length distributions from my field study are inconsistent with pattern simulation results by Marrett (1996) and Olson (2007) and others that produce power-law length distributions. This inconsistency suggests that the model assumptions of Olson (2004) best account for the patterns I observed. Two dimensional fracture intensity, defined as the total fracture trace length divided by the map area, was measured for each outcrop to determine how structural position affects fracture abundance patterns. Two-dimensional fracture intensity measurements collected at thirteen structural locations around Oil Mountain show higher values of fracture intensity near the fold-axial-trace compared to fold limbs. The difference is as much as 7.4 fractures per meter near fold hinges compared to 0.63 fractures per meter in fold limbs. Outcrops near small faults, with displacement of a few meters, show an increase in fracture intensity from background values around 4.8 fractures per meter to values nearly three times as high (13 fractures per meter) near faults. Values of fracture intensity that are more elevated near small tear faults imply that faulting has a greater influence on fracture intensity than folding. / text

Characterizing natural and man-made fracture networks is fundamental to predicting the storage capacity and pathways for flow of both carbonate and shale reservoirs. The goal of this study is to determine the seismic response specifically to networks of fractures clustered closely together through the analysis of seismic wavefield scatter, directional phase velocities, and amplitude attenuation. To achieve this goal, finite element modeling techniques are implemented to allow for the meshing of discontinuous fracture interfaces and, therefore, provide the most accurate calculation of seismic events from these irregular surfaces. The work presented here focuses on the center layer of an isotropic model that is populated with two main phases of fracture network alteration: a single large-scale cluster and multiple smaller-scale clusters. Phase 1 first confirms that the seismic response of a single idealized vertically fractured cluster is distinct crosscutting energy within a seismogram. Further investigation shows that, as fracture spacing within the cluster decreases, the depth at which crosscutting energy appears exponentially increases, placing it well below the true location of the cluster. This relationship holds until 28% of the fractures are moved from their uniformly spaced locations to random locations within the cluster. The vertical thickness of the cluster has little effect on the location or strength or the crosscutting signature. Phase 2 shows that, although clusters of more randomly spaced fractures mask crosscutting energy, a marked decrease in amplitude coinciding with a bend in the wavefront produces a heterogeneous anisotropic seismic response. This amplitude decay and heterogeneous anisotropy is visible until cluster spacing drops below one half of the wavelength or the ratio of fractured material to matrix material within a cluster drops below 37%. Therefore, the location of an individual fracture cluster can be determined from the location of amplitude decay, heterogeneous anisotropy, and crosscutting energy. Furthermore, the density of the cluster can be determined from the degree of amplitude decay, the angle of heterogeneous anisotropy, and the depth of cross-cutting energy. These relationships, constrained by limits on their detectability, can aid fracture network interpretation of real seismic data. / text

This dissertation contains a discussion concerning the validity of the principle of optimality and the dynamic programming algorithm in the context of discrete time and state multistage decision processes. The multistage decision model developed for the purpose of the investigation is of a general structure, especially as far as the reward function is concerned. The validity of the dynamic programming algorithm as a solution method is investigated and results are obtained for a rather wide class of decision processes. The intimate relationship between the principle and the algorithm is investigated and certain important conclusions are derived. In addition to the theoretical considerations involved in the implementation of the dynamic programming algorithm, some modeling and computational aspects are also investigated. It is demonstrated that the multistage decision model and the dynamic programming algorithm as defined in this study provide a solid framework for handling a wide class of multistage decision processes. The flexibility of the dynamic programming algorithm as a solution procedure for nonroutine reservoir control problems is demonstrated by two examples, one of which is a reliability problem. To the best of the author's knowledge, many of the theoretical derivations presented in this study, especially those concerning the relation between the principle of optimality and the dynamic programming algorithm, are novel.

<p>The Bredasdorp Basin is one of the largest hydrocarbon producing blocks within Southern Africa. The E-M field is situated approximate 50 km west from the FA platform and was brought into commission due to the potential hydrocarbons it may hold. If this field is brought up to full producing capability it will extend the lifespan of the refining station in Mosselbay, situated on the south coast of South Africa, by approximately 8 to 10 years. An unexpected pressure drop within the E-M field caused the suite not to perform optimally and thus further analysis was imminent to assess and alleviate the predicament. The first step within the project was to determine what might have cause the pressure drop and thus we had to go back to cores drilled by Soekor now known as Petroleum South Africa, in the early 1980&rsquo / s.</p> <p><br> <br /> </br>Analyses of the cores exposed a high presence of granulation seams. The granulation seams were mainly subjected within sand units within the cores. This was caused by rolling of sand grains over one another rearranging themselves due to pressure exerted through compaction and faulting, creating seal like fractures within the sand. These fractures caused these sand units to compartmentalize and prohibit flow from one on block to the next. With advance inquiry it was discovered that there was a shale unit situated within the reservoir dividing the reservoir into two main compartments. At this point it was determined to use Petrel which is windows based software for 3D visualization with a user interface based on the Windows Microsoft standards. This is easy as well as user friendly software thus the choice to go with it. The software uses shared earth modeling tool bringing about reservoir disciplines trough common data modelling. This is one of the best modelling applications in the available and it was for this reason that it was chosen to apply within the given aspects of the project A lack of data was available to model the granulation seams but with the data acquired during the core analyses it was possible to model the shale unit and factor in the influences of the granulation seams to asses the extent of compartmentalization. The core revealed a thick shale layer dividing the reservoir within two sections which was not previously noted. This shale layer act as a buffer/barrier restricting flow from the bottom to the top halve of the reservoir. This layer is thickest at the crest of the 10km&sup2 / domal closure and thins toward the confines of the E-M suite. Small incisions, visible within the 3 dimensional models could serve as a guide for possible re-entry points for future drilling. These incisions which were formed through Lowstand and Highstand systems tracts with the rise and fall of the sea level. The Bredasdorp Basin consists mainly of tilting half graben structures that formed through rifting with the break-up of Gondwanaland. The model also revealed that these faults segregate the reservoir further creating bigger compartments. The reservoir is highly compartmentalized which will explain the pressure loss within the E-M suite. The production well was drilled within one of these compartments and when the confining pressure was relieved the pressure dropped and the production decrease. As recommendation, additional wells are required to appraise the E-M structure and determine to what extent the granulation seems has affected fluid flow as well as the degree of sedimentation that could impede fluid flow. There are areas still containing untapped resources thus the recommendation for extra wells.</p>

Postglacial activity on the Askja volcanic system, north Iceland, has been dominated by basaltic volcanism. Over 80% of Askja's postglacial basalts fall within a relatively narrow compositional range containing between 4 and 8 wt.% MgO. The 'main series' is further divided into two groups separated by a distinct compositional gap evident in major and trace element concentrations. The most evolved basalts formed by fractional crystallisation within shallow magma reservoirs, followed by the extraction of residual liquid from a semi-rigid, interconnected crystal network. This process is analogous to the formation of melt segregations within single lava flows, and was responsible for generating several small-volume, aphyric basaltic lavas erupted along caldera ring fractures surrounding the Oskjuvatn (Askja lake) caldera in the early 20th century. Further examples of evolved basalt are found throughout Askja's postglacial volcanic record. However, Askja's early postglacial output is dominated by more primitive compositions. Some of the most primitive basalts erupted within the Askja caldera are found in phreatomagmatic tuff cone sequences which crop out in the walls of Oskjuvatn caldera. one such tuff sequence has been dated at between 2.9 and 3.6 ka. This tuff cone shares geochemical source characteristics, such as Nb/La and Nb/Zr, with basaltic tephras erupted during precursory activity to the Plinian-phreatoplinian eruption of 28th-29th March 1875. It may therefore be considered to be compositionally representative of the primitive basaltic magmas supplied to Askja during the postglacial period. The predominance of relatively primitive basalt (6.8 wt.% MgO) within Askia's postglacial lava succession suggests that it did not have a permanent shallow magma chamber during the postglacial period. It is envisaged that the postglacial Askja magmas evolved by a process of polybaric factionation in transient, sill-like magma storage zones located at various levels in the crust. The most primitive magmas erupted directly from deeper reservoirs, while the more evolved magmas experienced longer crustal residence times. The buoyant rise of volatile-enriched melt from these sill-like bodies, without mobilising phenocryst phases, explains the observation that almost all lavas on Askja's eastern and southern lava aprons are essentially aphyric. The 28th-29th March 1975 eruption marked the climax of a volcanotectonic episode on the Askja volanic system lasting from late 1874 to early 1876. Fissure eruptions also occurred at the Sveinagja graben, 45-65 km north of Askja, between February and October 1875, producing the Nyjahraun lava. A strong similarity exists between whole-rock major element concentrations from Myjahraun and the Askja 20th century basalts. This has led to the suggestion that these basalts originated from a common shallow magma reservoir beneath Askja central volcano, with the Nyjahraun eruptions being fed by a lateral dyke extending northwards from Askja. This theory also offers an explanation for the observation that the volume of phyolitic ejecta from 28th-29th March 1875 is significantly less than the volume of Oskjuvatn caldera, which was formed as a result of this eruption. New major and trace element data from whole-rock and glass samples indicated that Nyjahraun and the Askja 20th century basalts did not share a common parental magma. A detailed investigation of historical accounts from explorers and scientists who visited Askja between 1875 and 1932 reveals that Oskjuvatn caldera took over 40 years to reach its current form, and that its size in 1876 was equal to the volume erupted on 28th-29th March 1875. Small injections of magma into an igneous intrusion complex beneath Askja, coupled with background deflation, are sufficient to provide the required accommodation space for continued caldera collapse after 1876. Lateral flow is therefore not required to explain the volume of Oskjuvatn caldera, nor the eruption of evolved basaltic magma on the Askja volcanic system in 1875. It has been conjectured that the Holuhraun lava, located at the southern tip of the Askja volcanic system, was also connected with the 1874-76 Askja volcanotectonic episode. However, major and trace element data from whole-rock samples, glass and melt inclusions receal the Holuhraun is geochemically more similar to basalts erupted on the Bardarbunga-Veidivotn volcanic system than to postglacial basalts from Askja. The division between the 'Askja' and 'Veidivotn' geochemical signatures appears to be linked to east-west-striking lineations in the region south of Askja. This indicates that a particular geochemical signature is not necessarily confined to the tectonic expression of a single volcanic system, and has important implications for the identification and delineation of individual volcanic systems beneath the northwest sector of Vatnajokull.

Subsurface data derived from ~388 ft of drill core from Martin County (TX) were used to understand the depositional setting of the Wolfcamp-D, a petroleum producing interval in the Midland Basin. Elemental geochemistry collected via x-ray fluorescence revealed a highly variable depositional history marked by the deposition of diverse siliciclastic and carbonate lithofacies. Integration of multiple datasets resulted in the interpretation of nine lithofacies, whose deposition appears cyclical. Correlations between molybdenum and total organic carbon indicate slow recharge of bottom waters and anoxic/euxinicconditions within the basin. The presence of phosphatic nodules coinciding with siliceous black mudrocks suggested high levels of primary productivity driven by upwelling. High-frequency sea level variability, driven by far-field glaciation and regional paleoclimate, were key controls on both the chemostratigraphy and lithofacies. Along-strike variability is seen throughout the basin due to paleobathymetry, proximity and connections to paleochannels, and localized structures. Rhenium-osmium (Re/Os) geochronology was conducted on siliceous mudrocks with high total organic carbon. A depositional age of 300 ± 18 Ma was obtained, partially confirming previous correlations to shelf biostratigraphic data. Scatter in the Re/Os data is likely due to mixing in the basin or non-hydrogenous Os incorporated into the analysis due to the method of preparation.