[pt] Na indústria do petróleo, as tubulações de aço que conduzem hidrocarbonetos estão constantemente submetidas à ação do gás sulfídrico (H2S).Na condição de veículo do átomo de hidrogênio, este gás pode ensejar sua difusão no aço, provocando a fragilização do mesmo. O tratamento térmico pós-soldagem,previsto nos procedimentos de soldagem convencionais qualificados pela Petrobras, atua no sentido de atenuar os efeitos danosos do hidrogênio, na medida em que reduz o nível de tensões presentes na junta soldada, quando em contato com o H2S. O presente trabalho conduz um estudo a respeito do comportamento de juntas de topo de tubulações em aço-carbono microligado, soldadas conforme o procedimento conhecido como Dupla-Camada, comparando-o ao de juntas obtidas pelo procedimento de soldagem dito Convencional. O procedimento Dupla-Camada não contempla tratamento térmico pós-soldagem de revenimento, pois as tensões internas remanescentes na zona de solda são aliviadas pelo passe de soldagem subseqüente, agregando, portanto, redução do custo de manutenção e acréscimo da disponibilidade de tubos condutores de derivados do petróleo. Outrossim, este procedimento eleva a vida-útil da junta, pela melhoria da sua tenacidade, em função da redução do tamanho de grão obtida nas zonas termicamente afetadas (ZTA s). A medição das tensões residuais provenientes da soldagem (oriundas de contração, transformação de fases, gradiente de resfriamento e difusão do átomo de hidrogênio inerente ao processo) e da exposição do material ao H2S (provocadas por difusão do H), através do método de difração de raios-X, avaliou a efetividade do alívio de tensões alcançado em juntas idênticas soldadas pelos dois procedimentos citados. Foi, também, investigada a ocorrência de microtrincas inter e/ou transgranulares, bem como foram observadas as microestruturas resultantes, através de metalografias óptica e eletrônica de varredura, medidas as microdurezas das juntas, assim como os tamanhos de grão na zona de ligação das ZTA s, e comparados os resultados obtidos segundo os dois procedimentos de soldagem. A seguir, as amostras foram submetidas a análise em microscópio eletrônico de transmissão, visando a observação das discordâncias existentes, mecanismos que contribuem para o alcance do nível de tensões residuais reinante, que não puderam ser avaliados pelo método de medição empregado. Os resultados obtidos indicaram, em média, um estado de tensões mais relaxado, com evidência de microestrutura de granulação ligeiramente mais fina, após a soldagem pelo procedimento Convencional. Não foram encontradas microtrincas, nem constatada uma substancial existência de discordâncias, e constatou-se uma microdureza maior nas regiões de granulação refinada nas ZTA s. Torna-se necessária a realização de mais medições de tensões residuais, que forneçam suporte estatístico à tomada de decisão na escolha do procedimento de soldagem mais adequado. Do ponto-de-vista operacional, os resultados obtidos indicam a demanda por um controle mais apurado na velocidade de avanço da deposição do eletrodo (metal de adição) por parte do soldador executante do procedimento de soldagem Dupla-Camada, suficiente à garantia da elevação do aporte térmico exigida ao recozimento da microestrutura de granulação grosseira das ZTA s, visando a garantia do alcance das propriedades requeridas à junta soldada. / [en] In petroleum industry, steel pipes that conduct products are frequently submitted to the H2S action, that produces steel atomic hydrogen diffusion and embrittlement. The post- welding heat treatment, predicted in welding procedures qualified by Petrobras, reduce the dangerous hydrogen effect when joint is in contact with H2S, by reducing existing residual internal stresses level. This thesis studies a top joint performance when welded by two different techniques:Conventional, with tempering after welding, and Two-Layer Deposition, without post-welding heat treatment to internal stresses relief. In the last case, the residual stresses produced during welding deposition are reduced by action of second layer, what reduces maintenance costs and increase the equipments availability. This welding procedure increase the welded joint life too, by reducing grain size and increasing toughness of thermal affected zone. By X-ray diffraction methode, were measured internal stresses deriving from welding process and H2S exposition, to detect the efficacy of stress relief made on identical joints welded by the two refered procedures. They were also investigated existing microcracks, observed resultant microstructures by optical and scanning electron microscopy, measured microhardnesses and compared grain sizes in joints regions welded by both procedures. Then, samples were analysed by transmission electron microscopy to evaluate itself existing dislocations level, responsible by internal tension level existing at regions from welded zone that were inable to be measured by X-ray methode. Results obtained showed a major stress relief state and a relatively lowest grain size in joints welded by Conventional welding process. There was detected neither microcracks nor an important dislocations level and the microhardnesses showed higher values on the biggest grains at the thermal affected zones. It´s necessary to make more residual stresses measures to give a statistical support to decision about what is the most adequate welding procedure. From the operational point-of- view, these results suggest the necessity of a better parameters control process by the welder, in the case of alternative welding procedure proposed, the Two-Layer Deposition Technique.

The surface integrity of a machined component that meets the demands of a specific application requirement is defined by several characteristics. The residual stress profile into the component is often considered as the critical characteristics as it carries a direct effect on the fatigue life of a machined component. A significant amount of effort has been dedicated by researchers to predict post process stress in a workpiece using analytical, experimental, and numerical modeling methods. Nonetheless, no methodology is available that can express the cutting process parameters and tool geometry parameters as functions of machined residual stress profile to allow process planning in achieving desired residual stress profile. This research seeks to fill that void by developing a novel approach to enable the extraction of cutting process and tool geometry parameters from a desired or required residual stress profile. More specifically, the model consists in determining the depth of cut, the tool edge radius and the cutting forces needed to obtain a prescribed residual stress profile for an orthogonal machining operation. The model is based on the inverse solution of a physics-based modeling approach of the orthogonal machining operation and the inverse solution of the residual stress prediction from Hertzian stresses. Experimental and modeling data are used to validate the developed model. The work constitutes a novel approach in engineering residual stress in a machined component.

The aim of this study is to evaluate a methodology for modeling the influence of crystallographic grain orientation on key parameters in normal and sliding contacts. The simulations of interfering cylindrical asperities, using finite element analysis, were conducted using two different plasticity models for copper: a conventional isotropic, homogeneous J2 plasticity model and a continuum crystal plasticity model. A normal contact study was conducted in which crystallographic orientation effects on different parameters were investigated. The model was then adapted for sliding contacts, which allowed other parameters such as energy dissipation to be investigated. Using crystal plasticity, the dependence of crystallographic orientation on plastic deformation and energy dissipation can be determined. The relative trends predicted using crystal plasticity are consistent with experiments that show friction depends on crystallographic orientation when plastic deformation is one of the primary energy dissipation mechanisms.

The common profiled steel cladding systems used in Australia and its neighboring countries are made of very thin (0.42 mm) high strength steel (G550 with a minimum yield stress of 550 MPa) and are crest-fixed. However, these claddings often suffer from local pull-through failures at their screw connections during high wind events such as storms and cyclones. Past experience and researches have shown that the loss of steel roofs has often occurred due to local pull-through failures of their screw connections under uplift or suction loading. Loss of claddings always led to a progressive collapse of the entire building. This situation is continuing because of the lower priority given to the design of roof and wall cladding systems. At present, steel design codes do not provide guidelines for the design of crest-fixed steel roof or wall claddings. Past research has shown that European and American recommendations for steel claddings cannot be used for Australian crest-fixed cladding systems as they were developed mainly for valley-fixed claddings subjected to gravity loading instead of crest-fixed claddings subjected to wind uplift/suction loading. Therefore at present the design of thin steel cladding systems is based on laboratory tests and is expensive. These situations inhibit the innovative design and advances in the steel cladding industry. Since the local pull-through failures in the less ductile G550 steel claddings are initiated by transverse splitting at the fastener hole, analytical studies have not been able to determine the pull-through failure loads accurately. Therefore in the first stage of this research an appropriate fracture/splitting criterion was developed using a series of large scale and small scale experiments of crest-fixed steel claddings. A shell finite element model of crest-fixed steel cladding was then developed that included the new fracture/splitting criterion and advanced features such as hyperelastic material modelling, contact simulations, residual stresses and geometric imperfections. The improved finite element analyses were able to model the pull-through failures associated with splitting as evident from the comparison of their results with the corresponding full-scale experimental results. An extensive series of parametric studies considering the effects of material properties and geometric parameters of the two commonly used trapezoidal cladding profiles was undertaken using finite element analysis. Appropriate design formulae for the pull-through and dimpling failure load of trapezoidal profiles were then derived for optimization purposes and to simplify the current design method. This will then lead to modification and optimisation of cladding profiles to satisfy the requirements of both strength (safety during cyclones and storms) and economy. This thesis presents the details of large scale experimental studies undertaken and the results including the criterion for the splitting/fracture failure of high strength steel cladding systems. It describes the many advances made in the finite element modelling of crest-fixed steel cladding systems including the effects of localised pull-through and dimpling failures. Finally, it presents a simple design method for trapezoidal steel cladding systems under wind uplift or suction loading.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-10-09T12:28:54Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 / Made available in DSpace on 2014-10-09T13:57:01Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 / Dissertacao (Mestrado) / IPEN/D / Instituto de Pesquisas Energeticas e Nucleares - IPEN-CNEN/SP

The presence of residual stresses in engineering components may significantly affect damage evolution and progression towards failure. Correct evaluation of residual stress is of crucial importance for assessing mechanical components, predicting response and ensuring reliability. For example, when failure occurs due to cyclic loading, the underlying damage begins at the nano-, and then micro-scale. It is clear that improving engineering reliability at the micro-scale requires the ability to evaluate residual stress and mechanical properties at the appropriate scale. The key objective of the thesis is to advance the understanding and practice of residual stress evaluation at the micro-scale, and to examine the implications and applications that follow. Significant effort was devoted to the evaluation of two aspects of the relatively novel FIB-DIC micro-ring-core experimental technique: assessing the effects of Ga-ion damage and the quantification of uncertainty in stress evaluation due to unknown crystal orientation. FIB-DIC micro-ring-core milling was then used alongside with synchrotron XRD to study residual stress effects on fatigue crack growth propagation rate following the occurrence of overload or underload. The effects of the two principal mechanisms of crack retardation following an overload, residual stress and crack closure, were separated by testing samples at different loading ratios. Whilst, the acceleration after an underload was studied using validated non-linear FEM analyses. Conceptual focus was placed on the macro-micro-nano residual stress decomposition into Type I, II & III according to scale and, detailed examination was conducted experimentally and numerically. In the context of shot-peening surface treatment, residual stresses were modelled using a novel eigenstrain-based modelling procedure for arbitrarily shaped components. Furthermore, a fine scale characterisation was performed of the recast layer produced by EDM, with particular attention paid to the residual stress. The investigations presented in this thesis open new perspectives for the assessment of material reliability. Improved failure prediction models will be elaborated based on the insights obtained in the present study.

Este trabalho objetiva fazer uma análise do processo de trefilação através do uso de simulação computacional e avaliar a influência de variáveis do processo como lubrificante (coeficiente de atrito) e ângulo de fieira, bem como, verificar a eficácia da simulação na previsão de força, de temperatura e das tensões residuais. Foi realizado um trabalho experimental que envolveu a determinação do coeficiente de atrito através do ensaio do anel e a determinação das curvas de escoamento que foram retiradas de amostras trefiladas de um processo real. Efetuaram-se os cálculos das tensões do processo usando dados de curvas de escoamento e equações da literatura, posteriormente realizaram-se simulações computacionais que foram comparadas aos resultados obtidos através dos cálculos. Também se usou, adicionalmente, a simulação otimizada para avaliar as tensões residuais a fim de averiguar estes resultados de tensões residuais, comparando-os com resultados experimentais obtidos via difração de nêutrons para as mesmas barras que foram extraídas do processo industrial. Observou-se que a curva de escoamento do material é determinante para a obtenção de resultados confiáveis. A simulação foi boa para a estimativa da força, mas ainda apresenta limitações quanto à previsão de tensões residuais. / This paper aims to analyze the drawing process using simulation and evaluate the influence of process variables such as lubricant (friction coefficient) and angle of die as well as verify the effectiveness of simulation to preview the drawing force, temperature and residual stresses. Experimental work was carried out involving the determination of friction coefficient by means of the ring test and determination of flow curves by compression tests. The calculations of the stress of the process using data from the flow curves and equations from the literature have been carried out. Later on the experimental results were compared to the simulated results. It was also used in addition, the optimized simulation to evaluate the residual stresses and the results were then compared with experimental results obtained by neutron diffraction for the same bars that were extracted from the industrial process. The results are very influenced by the flow stress curve chosen. The simulation was satisfactory for the estimation of the drawing force but must be improved for a better estimation of residual stresses.

As tensões residuais podem atuar de forma benéfica ou maléfica no desempenho dos componentes mecânicos. Elas representam um dos principais potenciais para o aparecimento de distorções, empenamentos e mudanças dimensionais em componentes mecânicos durante o processo de manufatura. Por estes motivos a determinação da distribuição e o controle destas tensões residuais em cada etapa do processo de manufatura são de grande importância. Neste trabalho, foram realizadas análises da variação das tensões residuais em barras trefiladas de aço AISI 1048 em decorrência do processo de fabricação. As barras foram retiradas de quatro diferentes etapas do processo de trefilação combinada guardando-se a orientação inicial do fio-máquina, sendo elas: pré-endireitada, jateada, trefilada (com ângulos de 15°, 16°, 18° e 20°), endireitada e polida por rolos cruzados (PTN) (com ângulos de 15°, 16° e 18°). Estas barras foram ensaiadas através do método do furo cego (hole-drilling), método da deflexão (slitting) e difração de raios-X. Os ensaios foram realizados até uma profundidade de 1 mm para o método do furo cego e chegando até profundidades de 5,6mm para a técnica de difração de raios-X com remoção de camadas em diferentes posições periféricas para caracterizar heterogeneidades impostas pelo processo. A partir dos valores de deformações obtidos, foram calculadas as tensões residuais nas direções longitudinais e tangenciais para cada posição ensaiada. Com este trabalho foi obtida uma visão completa do desenvolvimento de tensões na região superficial da barra após as etapas do processo e assim foram determinadas quais etapas do processo tem maior influência no produto final (barras trefiladas). Após o préendireitamento as tensões são compressivas, aumentando seu nível após o jateamento. Na saída da trefilação as tensões mudam para trativas e após o endireitamento final (PTN) tornam-se menos trativas ou compressivas dependendo do ângulo de endireitamento (PTN) e o ângulo de fieira utilizado. A partir deste estudo foram propostas mudanças nos ângulos de ferramenta (fieira) e também nos rolos de polimento e endireitamento final, objetivando-se um produto final com tensões residuais mais favoráveis a processos subseqüentes de manufatura. Outro aspecto importante verificado é a variação das tensões residuais em relação à posição periférica: diferenças de até 200MPa foram verificadas até antes da etapa de endireitamento final PTN, após a qual as diferenças são reduzidas a quase zero. / The residual stresses can affect positively or negatively the behavior of mechanical components. These residual stresses also represent one of the main potentials for distortion (i.e. bending and dimensional changes) in mechanical components during the manufacturing. Therefore the determination of the distribution and the control of these residual stresses in each stage of the manufacturing process are of great importance. In this work the variation of residual stresses in cold-drawing of AISI 1048 steel bars due to the production process was analyzed. Samples were taken from five different stages of the process of combined cold-drawing with special care to keep the information about initial orientation. The process steps from where samples were taken were: pre-straightening, shot-blasting, drawing, straightening and polishing in crossed rolls (PTN) with angles of 16° and 18°. The determination of residual stresses was accomplished by the hole drilling method. The measurements were done until a depth of 1 mm in different angular positions on the periphery to characterize heterogeneities imposed by the process. Starting with the obtained strains, the residual stresses were calculated in the longitudinal and tangential directions for each measurement position. With this work a global view of the developed stresses in the surface of the bar after each process stage was obtained. After the pre-straightening the residual stresses are compressive, and increase their level after the shot blasting, at the end of drawing the residual stresses change for tensile and after the polishing with crossed rolls (PTN) they become less tensile or slightly compressive depending on the PTN - angle and draw angle used. Based on this study, changes were proposed in the tool (draw) angles and also in the PTN, being aimed at a final product with more favorable residual stresses to subsequent manufacturing operations. Another verified important aspect is the variation of the residual stresses in relation to the peripheral position: differences of up to 200MPa were verified before the stage of polishing in crossed rolls (PTN), after which the differences are almost reduced to nearly zero.

Les travaux présentés dans cette thèse s’inscrivent dans le contexte de l’identification de l’influence des paramètres de coupe et géométries d’outil sur l’usinabilité de l’alliage de titane Ti-6Al-4V sous deux états cristallographiques : alpha\beta et beta et s’insèrent dans le projet TiMaS, en partenariat avec Airbus et Figeac Aéro. La première partie consiste donc en une identification des différents critères d’usinabilité considérés dans la bibliographie pour l’usinage des titanes et la modélisation des actions thermomécaniques régissant la coupe. Dans une deuxième partie, l’usinabilité des deux matériaux a été étudiée pour deux outils coupants, utilisés par les industriels, constituant ainsi nos deux couples outil matière. Aussi, suivant la démarche du Couple Outil-Matière (COM) un espace de fonctionnement des conditions de coupe a été défini pour les deux couples considérés, afin de déterminer les paramètres de coupe garantissant une amélioration de la productivité. Les efforts de coupe, ainsi que la durée de vie des outils ont de ce fait été sélectionnés comme critère d’usinabilité. Egalement, l’observation de la morphologie des copeaux et de leur état de déformation a permis de voir les singularités de comportement existantes entre les deux microstructures. Ces singularités ayant un impact sur la géométrie même du copeau et les actions thermomécaniques exercées par ce dernier sur les outils coupants, dans la troisième partie, des essais de coupe orthogonale (pour les deux matériaux) ont été effectués afin d’évaluer l’impact des géométries d’outil, des conditions de coupe et de la microstructure du matériau sur la thermomécanique de la coupe et les longueurs de contact entre la face de coupe des outils coupant et le copeau. La visualisation de l’écoulement du copeau par caméras rapides a permis de constater une certaine variabilité des longueurs de contact, influencée en partie par les paramètres de coupe et majoritairement par l’état cristallographique du matériau. L’analyse EDX des faces de coupe des outils coupant a montré que cette variabilité a une influence marquée sur l’usure en diffusion des plaquettes. Enfin, dans une dernière partie, un dernier critère d’usinabilité est étudié, reposant sur l’analyse des contraintes résiduelles générées par la coupe en surface de la pièce usinée. En se basant sur les essais de coupe orthogonale réalisés dans la partie précédente, une modélisation numérique basée sur un couplage thermomécanique faible a été développée afin de déterminer l’effet des conditions de coupe et des géométries d’outil sur les actions thermomécaniques et donc la génération de contraintes résiduelles, pour le cas du matériau à structure cristallographique bimodale. Les résultats de la modélisation ont ensuite étés comparés à des mesures de diffractométrie à rayons X effectués sur les pièces. / The work presented in this thesis aims to identify the influence of cutting conditions and tool geometries on Ti-6Al-4V alloy’s machinability under two microstructural states: alpha\beta and beta. This thesis takes part into the TiMaS project involving collaboration with Airbus and Figeac Aero. In a first part, we have identified machinability criteria usually considered for titanium alloys. Also, models describing thermomechanical actions occurring during cutting process are explored. In a second part, the two materials’ machinability has been studied for two cutting tools used by the industrials. Following the Tool Material Pair method, an operating space has been defined for the considered pairs. Then, cutting conditions leading to an increase of productivity have been obtained. Cutting forces as well as tool lives have been chosen has machinability criteria. Moreover, observations of chips and their states of deformation highlighted some behavior singularities between the two materials. These singularities have an impact on chip geometries and thermomechanical actions applied on cutting tools. Thus, in a third part, orthogonal cutting tests have been done in order to evaluate the effect of cutting conditions, tool geometries and microstructural state of the work material on thermomechanical actions of the cutting process and on tool chip contact lengths. Observations made on the chip flowing, with high speed cameras, have shown a variability of these contacts, mostly due to the microstructural state of the material. EDX measurements made on tools’ rake face allowed linking these variabilities to diffusion wear. In the last part, residual stresses induced by cutting process on the finished surface has been taken as the last machinability criterion for this study. Using orthogonal cutting test datas from the previous part, a numerical modeling using a low thermomechanical coupling has been carried out in order to understand cutting condition and geometry effects on residual stress generation. Modeling results have been confronted to residual stress measurements made with X-ray diffraction method on finished surface.

As tensões residuais podem atuar de forma benéfica ou maléfica no desempenho dos componentes mecânicos. Elas representam um dos principais potenciais para o aparecimento de distorções, empenamentos e mudanças dimensionais em componentes mecânicos durante o processo de manufatura. Por estes motivos a determinação da distribuição e o controle destas tensões residuais em cada etapa do processo de manufatura são de grande importância. Neste trabalho, foram realizadas análises da variação das tensões residuais em barras trefiladas de aço AISI 1048 em decorrência do processo de fabricação. As barras foram retiradas de quatro diferentes etapas do processo de trefilação combinada guardando-se a orientação inicial do fio-máquina, sendo elas: pré-endireitada, jateada, trefilada (com ângulos de 15°, 16°, 18° e 20°), endireitada e polida por rolos cruzados (PTN) (com ângulos de 15°, 16° e 18°). Estas barras foram ensaiadas através do método do furo cego (hole-drilling), método da deflexão (slitting) e difração de raios-X. Os ensaios foram realizados até uma profundidade de 1 mm para o método do furo cego e chegando até profundidades de 5,6mm para a técnica de difração de raios-X com remoção de camadas em diferentes posições periféricas para caracterizar heterogeneidades impostas pelo processo. A partir dos valores de deformações obtidos, foram calculadas as tensões residuais nas direções longitudinais e tangenciais para cada posição ensaiada. Com este trabalho foi obtida uma visão completa do desenvolvimento de tensões na região superficial da barra após as etapas do processo e assim foram determinadas quais etapas do processo tem maior influência no produto final (barras trefiladas). Após o préendireitamento as tensões são compressivas, aumentando seu nível após o jateamento. Na saída da trefilação as tensões mudam para trativas e após o endireitamento final (PTN) tornam-se menos trativas ou compressivas dependendo do ângulo de endireitamento (PTN) e o ângulo de fieira utilizado. A partir deste estudo foram propostas mudanças nos ângulos de ferramenta (fieira) e também nos rolos de polimento e endireitamento final, objetivando-se um produto final com tensões residuais mais favoráveis a processos subseqüentes de manufatura. Outro aspecto importante verificado é a variação das tensões residuais em relação à posição periférica: diferenças de até 200MPa foram verificadas até antes da etapa de endireitamento final PTN, após a qual as diferenças são reduzidas a quase zero. / The residual stresses can affect positively or negatively the behavior of mechanical components. These residual stresses also represent one of the main potentials for distortion (i.e. bending and dimensional changes) in mechanical components during the manufacturing. Therefore the determination of the distribution and the control of these residual stresses in each stage of the manufacturing process are of great importance. In this work the variation of residual stresses in cold-drawing of AISI 1048 steel bars due to the production process was analyzed. Samples were taken from five different stages of the process of combined cold-drawing with special care to keep the information about initial orientation. The process steps from where samples were taken were: pre-straightening, shot-blasting, drawing, straightening and polishing in crossed rolls (PTN) with angles of 16° and 18°. The determination of residual stresses was accomplished by the hole drilling method. The measurements were done until a depth of 1 mm in different angular positions on the periphery to characterize heterogeneities imposed by the process. Starting with the obtained strains, the residual stresses were calculated in the longitudinal and tangential directions for each measurement position. With this work a global view of the developed stresses in the surface of the bar after each process stage was obtained. After the pre-straightening the residual stresses are compressive, and increase their level after the shot blasting, at the end of drawing the residual stresses change for tensile and after the polishing with crossed rolls (PTN) they become less tensile or slightly compressive depending on the PTN - angle and draw angle used. Based on this study, changes were proposed in the tool (draw) angles and also in the PTN, being aimed at a final product with more favorable residual stresses to subsequent manufacturing operations. Another verified important aspect is the variation of the residual stresses in relation to the peripheral position: differences of up to 200MPa were verified before the stage of polishing in crossed rolls (PTN), after which the differences are almost reduced to nearly zero.