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AASHTO LRFD requires the use of longitudinal stiffeners in plate girder webs when the web slenderness D/tw is greater than 150. This practice is intended to limit the lateral flexing of the web plate during construction and at service conditions. AASHTO accounts for an increase in the web bend buckling resistance due to the presence of a longitudinal stiffener. However, when the theoretical bend buckling capacity of the stiffened web is exceeded under strength load conditions, the Specifications do not consider any contribution from the longitudinal stiffener to the girder resistance. That is, the AASHTO LRFD web bend buckling strength reduction factor Rb applied in these cases is based on an idealization of the web neglecting the longitudinal stiffener. This deficiency can have significant impact on girder resistance in regions of negative flexure. This research is aimed at evaluating the improvements that may be achieved by fully considering the contribution of web longitudinal stiffeners to the girder flexural resistance. Based on refined FE test simulations, this research establishes that minimum size longitudinal stiffeners, per current AASHTO LRFD requirements, contribute significantly to the post buckling flexural resistance of plate girders, and can bring as much as a 60% increase in the flexural strength of the girder. A simple cross-section Rb model is proposed that can be used to calculate the girder flexural resistance at the yield limit state. This model is developed based on test simulations of straight homogenous girders subjected to pure bending, and is tested extensively and validated for hybrid girders and other limit states. It is found that there is a substantial deviation between the AISC/AASHTO LTB resistance equations and common FE test simulations. Research is conducted to determine the appropriate parameters to use in FE test simulations. Recommended parameters are identified that provide a best fit to the mean of experimental data. Based on FE simulations on unstiffened girders using these recommended parameters, a modified LTB resistance equation is proposed. This equation, used in conjunction with the proposed Rb model also provides an improved handling of combined web buckling and LTB of longitudinally stiffened plate girders. It is observed that the noncompact web slenderness limit in the Specifications, which is an approximation based on nearly rigid edge conditions for the buckling of the web plate in flexure is optimistic for certain cross-sections with narrow flanges. This research establishes that the degree of restraint at the edges of the web depend largely on the relative areas of the adjoining flanges and the area of the web. An improved equation for the noncompact web slenderness limit is proposed which leads to a better understanding and representation of the behavior of these types of members.

<p>Quality of the castings is affected by several factors which the designer should take into consideration during the product development process. Although residual stress is one of those, it is often not considered in practical computations. Hence residual stresses are one of the forgotten areas in designing of machine parts. This master thesis is focused on the investigation of residual stresses in a high pressure die casted component, with the aim of extending its service life, by taking results from the study as a feedback.</p><p>The investigation of residual stresses was done on a variety of specimens, cast aluminum flywheel, provided by Husqvarna AB. This flywheel is a component in a product of the same company.In evaluating the residual stresses in the part, two tools-simulation and physical measurement were used. Moreover, comparison with these two methods is also done at an area of interest on the flywheel. The simulation was carried out by using MAGMAhpdc-a module for high pressure die casting process, from the commercial software package MAGMAsoft; while for the physical measurements, the hole drilling method was used, a method believed to be less accurate at low stresses areas.</p><p>The findings obtained from this study show that the results from both procedures are close, with small deviations observed, which reveals the reliability of the hole drilling method even when the stress levels are low. It is also found that the compressive residual stresses dominate in the component-a preferred phenomenon with regards to residual stress.</p>

Les piles à combustible Solid Oxide Fuel Cell sont des systèmes de production d’électricité. Une cellule élémentaire est un multicouche constitué de matériaux céramiques et de métal. Elles sont très sensibles aux contraintes mécaniques générées lors des cycles thermiques et d’oxydo-réduction, limitant leur durée de vie.Ce travail a porté sur la détermination expérimentale des contraintes résiduelles dans des cellules SOFC à anode support en fonction des sollicitations du système. Parallèlement à des mesures in-situ en température, une approche multi-échelles a été développée pour évaluer les hétérogénéités de contraintes dans l’électrolyte liées à la forte anisotropie élastique de la zircone yttriée qui le constitue. Différentes techniques ont été mise en œuvre afin de couvrir les 3 ordres de contraintes. Les mesures à l’échelle macroscopique ont été effectuées par diffraction de rayons X de laboratoire (méthode des sin²(Ψ)). La microdiffraction de rayonnement synchrotron en mode faisceau blanc et monochromatique a permis, après un important travail d’amélioration du protocole de mesure et d’analyse, de déterminer les tenseurs complets de contraintes et déformations grain à grain dans l’électrolyte. Les déformations intra-granulaires ont été évaluées par une technique d’EBSD.Les résultats obtenus ont permis d’analyser les mécanismes principaux qui régissent les évolutions de contraintes dans l’électrolyte. Des hétérogénéités de contraintes entre grains liées à leurs orientations cristallographiques ont été mises en évidence. Au-delà du problème des SOFC, les techniques mises en œuvre ouvrent la voie aux validations expérimentales des modèles mécaniques poly-cristallins. / The Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC) are high-performance electrochemical devices for energy conversion. A single cell is composed of layers made of different ceramic materials and metal. The mechanical integrity of the cell is a major issue during its lifetime. Damage of the cells is mainly due to the high operating temperature, the “redox” behavior of the anode and the brittleness of the involved materials. In this work, residual stresses in the electrolyte of a planar anode-supported SOFC have been experimentally measured for different treatments of the cell. In situ analysis at various temperatures has been performed. A multi-scale approach has been developed to study the expected strain-stress heterogeneities in the electrolyte due to the strong elastic anisotropy of the involved material (yttria-stabilized zirconia). Different techniques have been used to determinate stresses at the 3 different orders. Macroscopic stresses were studied using the Sin2 method on a laboratory X-ray goniometer. The complete strain and stress tensors of individual grains in the electrolyte have been determinate, after various improvements in the technique, by combining the diffraction of white and monochromatic micro beams produced by synchrotron source. Strain variation into grains has been evaluated using EBSD.This study has identified the main phenomena that control the stresses variation in the electrolyte layer. Stresses heterogeneities from grain to grain have been found and linked to the crystallographic orientation. Beyond SOFC’s considerations, the techniques that have been developed should permit an experimental validation of mechanical modeling to polycrystalline materials.

Compressive residual stresses (CRS) are beneficial for enhancing the fatigue life of metal components. Shot Peening (SP) is an industrial cold working process that is applied to induce a field of CRS and modify the mechanical properties of the metal component. The SP process involves impacting a surface with tiny shots with forces sufficient to create plastic deformation. The process is governed by a number of important parameters such as the shot size, angle of attack, initial velocity, mass flow rate and the distance from the shot nozzle to the surface being peened. The relationship between the optimal peening outcome, particularly the residual stress distribution of the treated surface, and the peening parameters is still unknown and needs to be investigated further. Manufacturers are interested in producing a uniform peening process for complex geometries which optimises the SP parameters. Modelling the process is complex as it involves the interaction of a metallic surface with a large number of shots of very small diameter. Conventionally, such problems are solved using finite element software to predict stresses and strains of a single shot impact then applying superposition. At the moment there are no Finite Element Method (FEM) modelling solutions involving more than tens of shots. The number of shots and elements required for such a modelling process made the approach unfeasible prior to the work described herein. The objective of this work is to develop an appropriate numerical modelling approach that can better simulate the real SP process. The model will be provided by combining Discrete Element Method (DEM) with FEM. The DEM is employed to get a distribution of impact velocities over space and time which are then implemented into a FEM analysis. A discrete element model with randomly distributed steel shots bombarding a steel component at various velocities has been developed as benchmark example. With this model the SP shot - shot interaction, the shot - target interaction, the surface coverage, angle of impingement, shot size, impact velocity and the overall shot flow can be parametrically studied in details and with little computational effort. The novel approach also proposes a new method to dynamically change the coefficient of restitution for repeated impacts during the simulation and predicts the CRS more effectively. The effects of SP on different materials of relevance to gas turbine engine components will be investigated in order to improve the understanding of the interaction between the shots and the targeted material. Initially, an uncoupled analysis was peforned, in order to assess the capabilities of the two modelling systems, DEM and FEM, to delivery an improved solutuion when combining two commercially available codes. This parametric analysis is performed using the state-of-the-art Discrete Element (DE) application EDEM. In the subsequent part of this work, a dynamic Finite Element (FE) application Abaqus will be used to investigate single shot impacts and to obtain the residual stress distribution. This gives us a prescribed residual stress distribution and peening coverage. A Combined DEM/FEM tool (DEST) is proposed that eliminates any manual pre-processing required for linking/coupling, eliminating the use of two different applications and provide an integrated solution for the simulation of the Shot Peening process. In the subsequent chapter, the implementation of essential tools for the enchanced modelling of Shot Peening process functionalities, such as the nozzle, bounding box, coverage and intensity is described. A number of computational improvements are also implemented to reduce the computation time. The existing binary search is enhanced to self-balancing search tree and further improved to allow insertion and deletion of elements. A bounding box feature which removes shots that move out of the domain during the course of the simulation is also implemented. Experiments featuring single shot impacts are performed to gain better understanding the deformation process in the target material subjected to impact conditions to those occurring in the production peening. The single shot impacts are experimentally examined using SEM and EBSD. During final chapter, case studies are performed to compare the results of the simulations with large-scale experimental work. The coverage of peening of single and multiple nozzles with different angle of impingements are assessed. Finally, possible directions for further research concerning the accurate quantification of material responses to SP are identified in the report.

Les études sur les procédés de soudage et sur la fiabilité des structures assemblées apparaissent actuellement comme un domaine de recherche actif, ouvert et complexe, car elles nécessitent de combiner de nombreuses connaissances dans différents domaines de la physique, de la mécanique et des procédés. La distribution des contraintes résiduelles joue un rôle important dans la vie des structures en favorisant la rupture par fatigue ou par fissuration. Ainsi, une meilleure compréhension des contraintes résiduelles évite l'utilisation de facteurs de sécurité plus élevés et, par conséquent permet de mieux optimiser le cycle de vie des structures soudées. A travers ce travail de thèse, nous nous sommes intéressés au soudage par laser d’un acier dual phase DP600, soudé en configuration par recouvrement, dont l’application est l’utilisation dans le domaine automobile. Cette thèse présente deux volets : un volet expérimental et un volet numérique.L’étude expérimentale nous a permis d’une part d’appréhender les conséquences métallurgiques et mécaniques du procédé laser sur l’acier DP600 et d’autre part d’utiliser et de valider les résultats numériques des modèles développés. L’étude numérique a eu pour objectif de prédire l’histoire thermique, métallurgique et l’évolution des caractéristiques mécaniques des tôles soudées par faisceau laser. Nous avons développé, sur un code de calcul par élémentsfinis Abaqus, trois modèles numériques. Le modèle thermomécanique, nous a permis de simuler la distribution spatio-temporelle de la température. Dans ce cas, le chargement appliqué est dépendant des paramètres du procédé etdes caractéristiques du faisceau laser et est associé à des conditions aux limites. Pour le modèle mécanique, nous avonsconsidéré un comportement élasto-plastique avec un chargement thermique transitoire, résultat du modèle thermique.Le deuxième modèle thermo-métallurgique nous a permis de simuler les phénomènes d’austénisation pendant la phase de chauffage (modèle de Waeckel) et de prendre en compte les fractions volumiques des phases martensitiques générées par les transformations de phases austénite–martensite lors du refroidissement (modèle de Koistinen-Marburger). Enfin, dans la dernière partie de simulation, nous avons réalisé le couplage thermo-metallo-mécanique. Les résultats obtenus dans la partie précédente, ont été implémentés dans deux modèles mécaniques : le modèle mécanique classique et le modèle mécanique avec prise en compte de la déformation liée aux effets de dilatation métallurgique. Cet effet a été intégré à travers le coefficient de dilatation thermique des phases ferritiques et martensitiques et des fractions volumiques obtenues à partir du modèle thermo-métallurgique. Les résultats ont montré que la répartition des contraintes résiduelles dans la zone de fusion et dans la zone affectée thermiquement sous l’effet de la déformation thermo-métallurgique donne des valeurs supérieures à celles estimées par le modèle élasto-plastique classique. / Studies on welding processes and the reliability of assembled structures currently appear as an area of active research, open and complex as they need to combine knowledge in many different fields of physics, mechanics and processes. The distribution of residual stress plays an important role in the life of welded structures by promoting fatigue failure or cracking. Thus, a better understanding of residual stress avoids the use of higher safety factors and therefore helps to optimize the life cycle of welded structures. Through this work, we are interested in laser welding of steel DP600 dual phase welded overlap configuration, the application is the use in the automotive field. This thesis has two components: an experimental and a numerical part. The experimental study allowed us, firstly to understand the metallurgical and mechanical effects of laser welding on steel DP600 and secondly to use and validate the numerical results of the developed models. The numerical study aimed to predict the thermal history, and metallurgical changes in mechanical properties of laser beam welded sheets. We have developed three numerical models by using a finite element code inside Abaqus. The thermomechanical model allowed us to simulate the temporal and spatial distribution of temperature. In this case, the applied load is dependent on the processing parameters and characteristics of the laser beam and is associated with boundary conditions. For the mechanical model, we considered an elastoplastic behavior with a transient thermal loading result of the thermal model. The second thermo-metallurgical m odel allowed us to simulate the phenomena austenitizing during the heating phase (Waeckel model) and take into account the volume fraction of martensitic phase transformations generated by the austenite-martensite transformation during cooling (Koistinen-Marburger model). Finally, in the last part of simulation, we have achieved the metallothermo- mechanical coupling. The results obtained in the previous section have been implemented in two mechanical models: the classical mechanics model and the mechanical model taking intoaccount the deformation due to the effects of metallurgical expansion. This effect has been built through the coefficient ofthermal expansion of ferritic and martensitic phases and volume fractions obtained from the thermo-metallurgical model. The results showed that the distribution of residual stresses in the fusion zone and the heat affected as a result of the eformation thermometallurgical field gives values higher than those estimated by the classical elastic-plastic model.

[pt] O conhecimento dos esforços de flexão e normal provocados por movimentação de solo é importante para a análise de integridade estrutural de dutos. A existência de tensões residuais é um dos principais obstáculos para obtenção de resultados precisos na determinação de tais esforços. Este trabalho foi desenvolvido com o objetivo de analisar o comportamento das tensões residuais de fabricação em tubos ao longo de sua circunferência e de seu comprimento. Foram feitas medições de tensões residuais em corpos de prova de um tubo novo e de outros retirados de operação utilizando a técnica de furo cego e uma nova técnica de seccionamento. As medições foram realizadas ao longo da circunferência e em diferentes seções dos tubos. As medições com a técnica de seccionamento proposta, denominada técnica do furo elíptico, mostraram-se coerentes com as medições com o furo cego, principalmente para as tensões longitudinais. A partir dos resultados obtidos nos experimentos realizados, foram feitas recomendações e propostas metodologias para separar as tensões residuais de fabricação das tensões atuantes no duto em operação. Para cada método proposto foi feita uma simulação para avaliar seus erros. As tensões residuais de fabricação circunferenciais e longitudinais possuem magnitudes consideráveis (por vezes até próximas à resistência ao escoamento dos tubos). Desprezá-las em medições realizadas em campo, como é feito na maioria das vezes para calcular os esforços existentes, pode acarretar grandes erros na determinação dos esforços agindo sobre o duto. Os resultados das simulações mostraram que, se as tensões residuais forem baixas, os esforços de trabalho obtidos desconsiderando-as são próximos dos valores reais. No mais, os procedimentos propostos para a determinação dos esforços, mediante a separação das tensões residuais existentes, apresentaram erros menores ou, no mínimo, próximos aos encontrados quando o cálculo foi feito negligenciando-se as tensões residuais. / [en] The knowledge of the bending and axial efforts caused by soil movement is important for the structural integrity analysis of pipelines. The existence of residual stresses is one of the main obstacles for obtaining good results in the determination of such efforts. This work was developed to analyze the behavior of the residual stresses of manufacturing in pipes throughout its circumference and length. Measurements of residual stresses had been made in samples of a new pipe and others samplers removed from operation, using the hole drilling technique and a new sectioning technique. The measurements had been carried throughout the circumference and different sections of the pipes. The measurements with the sectioning technique proposed, called elliptical hole technique, are coherent with the measurements of the hole drilling technique, mainly for the longitudinal stresses. From the experimental results, recommendations had been made and methodologies had been proposed to separate the manufacturing residual stresses from the operating stresses in the pipelines. For each method considered in this work, a simulation was made to evaluate its errors. The circumferential and longitudinal residual stresses of manufacturing have considerable magnitudes (sometimes next to the yield strength of the pipes). Not considering the residual stresses in measurements carried through in situ to calculate the existing loads, as it is made most of the time, can cause significant errors in the determination of the efforts acting on the pipeline. The results of the simulations had shown that, if the residual stresses are low, the work loads obtained when the residual stresses are not considered are comparable with the correct loads. The procedures proposed for the determination of loads, considering the separation of the existing residual stresses, had presented smaller errors or closer to those when the calculation was made neglecting the residual stresses.

O objetivo deste trabalho é analisar a distribuição das tensões residuais que resultam da combinação das variações volumétricas resultantes dos gradientes térmicos e das transformações de fase que ocorrem durante a têmpera de cilindros de aço AISI/SAE 1045, 4140 e 4340. O modelo matemático usado para este objetivo utiliza o programa AC3 de modelagem de tratamentos térmicos (curvas de transformação, curvas de resfriamento, microestrutura e a dureza do material), para alimentar um modelo de elementos finitos, considerando acoplamento termo-mecânico e comportamento não linear elasto-plástico, para previsão de tensões residuais em cilindros de aço AISI/SAE 1045, 4140 e 4340 temperados em água. São apresentados, também, os resultados de observações metalográficas e perfis de dureza que confirmam qualitativamente as previsões do programa AC3. A verificação do modelo numérico por elementos finitos foi efetuada através da medição das tensões residuais nos cilindros de aço com o emprego da técnica de difração de raios X. A simulação numérica, através do método dos elementos finitos comprova, nos três casos estudados, a existência de tensões residuais de compressão na região superficial após o processo de têmpera e indica de maneira quantitativa e qualitativa que as tensões mais significativas são as tangenciais. Os resultados obtidos a partir do modelo numérico mostraram uma aderência significativa em comparação com os resultados experimentais. / The aim of this work is to analyze the distribution of residual stresses resulting from combination of volumetric changes due to heat gradients and phase changes occurring during the quenching process of AISI/SAE 1045, 4140 and 4340 steel cylinders. The mathematical model used for this objective uses the AC3 program for modeling thermal treatments (transformation curves, cooling curves, microstructure and material hardness), whose results were fed into a finite element model, considering thermal-mechanical coupling and non-linear elastic-plastic behavior for forecasting of residual stresses in AISI/SAE 1045, 4140 and 4340 steel cylinders quenched in water. The observed microstructures and measured hardness confirmed qualitatively the previsions of the AC3 program. The results of finite element modeling were compared to experimental measurements of residual stresses measured at the surface, using X-Ray diffraction techniques. The finite element numerical simulation shows, for the three studied cases, the presence of compressive residual stresses in the surface region after a quenching process and indicates qualitatively and quantitatively that the most significant stresses are the tangential ones. The results obtained from the numerical model showed a significant adherence in comparison with the experimental results.

O aumento da vida em fadiga em peças submetidas a esforços cíclicos devido à aplicação de processos de tratamento mecânico superficial já é bastante conhecido, tanto no meio industrial quanto no meio acadêmico. Para molas, o processo de shot-peening se torna etapa essencial no processo de fabricação, porém um estudo sistemático do efeito do shot-peening na vida em fadiga se faz necessário. O objetivo deste trabalho é aprofundar o conhecimento nos processos de jateamento superficial do tipo shot-peening para molas em lâminas de veículos, através da análise de tensões residuais por difração de raios-x e ensaios de fadiga em uma série de amostras que sofreram dez diferentes receitas de processos de jateamento. Dos dez diferentes processos, o de jateamento com granalha esférica fundida de aço com 1,0mm de diâmetro seguido de um segundo jateamento com granalha esférica fundida de aço de 0,3mm de diâmetro levou a uma maior vida em fadiga das amostras. A análise por difração de raios-x comprovou que a importância das tensões residuais de compressão se dá até a uma profundidade de 0,05mm, influenciando diretamente no modo de nucleação de trincas de fadiga. Acima desta profundidade, as tensões residuais induzidas por shot-peening não têm influência no modo de propagação destas trincas, e por consequência na vida em fadiga das peças. Correlações entre os resultados e a alta dureza e diminuída ductilidade do material utilizado são discutidas. / The improvement of fatigue life in parts subjected to cyclic stresses by application of mechanical surface treatment processes is already well known, both in the industry and in the academy. Dealing with automotive springs, the shot peening process becomes an essential step in manufacturing these parts. In the case of leaf springs, however, a systematic investigation of the effect of shot peening on fatigue life is still required. The aim of this work is to improve the knowledge of shot peening on leaf springs for vehicles, through the analysis of residual stresses by x-ray diffraction and fatigue tests on a series of samples that were subjected to ten different peening schedules. Among the investigated processes, the usage of 1.0 mm diameter cast steel shot followed by a second peening with 0.3 mm diameter cast steel shot leads to better performance, regarding fatigue life. X-ray diffraction analysis shows that this improved performance may be attributed to residual compressive stress maintained until a depth of 0.05 mm below the surface, which directly influences the fatigue crack nucleation. Residual stresses induced by shot-peening in larger depths, have no influence on sample fatigue life, showing that crack propagation is not affected by the induced residual stresses. Consequently, the durability of parts is improved by shot-peening exclusively due to this influence on crack nucleation at samples surface. Correlations with the increased hardness and decreased ductility of the employed material are discussed.

Ce projet de thèse s’inscrit dans le cadre du FUI « MicroConnect », porté par la société Axon’Cable, dont l’objectif principal, est la conception et le développement d’un procédé de mise en forme automatisé, permettant d’élaborer un nouveau type de connecteurs twist-pin novateurs et très performants. Ces connecteurs, robustes, répondent aux exigences d’environnements sévères et trouvent leurs applications dans de nombreux domaines tels que l'électronique aéronautique, les équipements avioniques, les systèmes militaires... L’un des éléments essentiels des connecteurs est le contact, qui permet de faire transiter le courant électrique d’un système à un autre. Chaque connecteur peut compter des dizaines, voire des centaines de contacts.De par l’enchaînement des procédés utilisés pour concevoir ces contacts, les propriétés électriques et mécaniques initiales peuvent être modifiées. L’utilisation de la simulation numérique s’avère donc indispensable pour maitriser l’influence de ces procédés sur le produit final. La démarche adoptée dans ce travail a consisté à modéliser numériquement les différentes étapes de fabrication des contacts (pliage, soudage laser et sertissage) avec le logiciel Abaqus afin de déterminer les contraintes résiduelles issues de ces différents procédés de mise en forme. Les modèles sont validés en les confrontant à des investigations expérimentales réalisées. Pour finir, une optimisation du sertissage a été réalisée pour mettre en évidence les configurations géométriques des outillages permettant au produit développé de répondre aux essais d’arrachement prévus par les normes de validation imposées. / This PhD thesis is part of the FUI "MicroConnect" project, carried out by Axon'Cable Group, whose main objective is the design and development of an automated forming process to manufacture a new type of innovative and high-performance twist-pin connectors. These connectors are used in many fields such as aeronautical electronics, avionics, military systems because of their strength and their hability to be used in very demanding environments... An essential element of the connectors is the contact, as it makes the transfer of the electric current from a system to another. Each connector can have tens or even hundreds.Due to the sequence of the processes used to produce these contacts, their initial properties can be modified. The use of numerical simulation is therefore essential to master the influence of these processes on the final product. The approach adopted in this work consisted in modelling the different steps of the contact fabrication (bending, laser welding and crimping) on the Abaqus software in order to determine the residual stresses resulting from these operations. These models are validated by comparing them with experimental investigations carried out. Finally, an optimization of the crimping is done to highlight the geometrical configurations of the tools allowing the developed product to respond to the tearing tests provided by the validation standards.