Retrotransposons constitute around 40% of the mammalian genome and their aberrant activation can have wide ranging detrimental consequences, both throughout development and into somatic lineages. DNA methylation is one of the major epigenetic mechanisms in mammals, and is essential in repressing retrotransposons throughout mammalian development. Yet during normal mouse embryonic development some cell lineages become extensively DNA hypomethylated and it is not clear how these cells maintain retrotransposon silencing in a globally hypomethylated genomic context. In this thesis I determine that hypomethylation in multiple contexts results in the consistent activation of only one gene in the mouse genome - Tex19.1. Thus if a generic compensatory mechanism for loss of DNA methylation exists in mice, it must function through this gene. Tex19.1-/- mice de-repress retrotransposons in the hypomethylated component of the placenta and in the mouse germline, and have developmental defects in these tissues. In this thesis I examine the mechanism of TEX19.1 mediated genome defence and the developmental consequences upon its removal. I show that TEX19.1 functions in repressing retrotransposons, at least in part, through physically interacting with the transcriptional co-repressor, KAP1. Tex19.1-/- ES cells have reduced levels of KAP1 bound retrotransposon chromatin and reduced levels of the repressive H3K9me3 modification at these loci. Furthermore, these subsets of retrotransposon loci are de-repressed in Tex19.1-/- placentas. Thus, my data indicates that mouse cells respond to hypomethylation by activating expression of Tex19.1, which in turn augments compensatory, repressive histone modifications at retrotransposon sequences, thereby helping developmentally hypomethylated cells to maintain genome stability. I next aimed to further elucidate the role of Tex19.1 in the developing hypomethylated placenta. I determine that Tex19.1-/- placental defects precede intrauterine growth restriction of the embryo and that alterations in mRNA abundance in E12.5 Tex19.1-/- placentas is likely in part due to genic transcriptional changes. De-repression of LINE- 1 is evident in these placentas and elements of the de-repressed subfamily are associated with significantly downregulated genes. If retrotransposon de-repression is contributing to developmental defects by interfering with gene expression remains to be determined, however I identify a further possible mechanism leading to placental developmental defects. I determine that Tex19.1-/- placentas have an increased innate immune response and I propose that this is contributing to the developmental defects observed. Developmental defects and retrotransposon de-repression are also observed in spermatogenesis in Tex19.1-/- testes, the molecular basis for which is unclear. I therefore investigate the possibility that the TEX19.1 interacting partners, the E3 ubiquitin ligase proteins, may be contributing to the phenotypes observed in Tex19.1- /- testes. I show that repression of MMERVK10C in the testes is dependent on UBR2, alongside TEX19.1. Furthermore, I have identified a novel role for the TEX19.1 interacting partner, UBR5, in spermatogenesis, whose roles are distinct from those of TEX19.1. The work carried out during the course of this thesis provides mechanistic insights into TEX19.1 mediated genome defence and highlights the importance of protecting the genome from aberrant retrotransposon expression.

Retrotransposons constitute about a third of our genome. It is challenging to identify the causes and consequences of retrotransposon expression in human disease due to hundreds of active genomic copies and poor conservation across species. We profiled genomic insertions of retrotransposons in ovarian cancer. RNAs exhibiting Bayesian correlation with retrotransposon RNA were analyzed to identify potential causes and consequences of retrotransposon expression in ovarian and breast cancers. This strategy found divergent inflammatory responses associated with retrotransposon expression in ovarian and breast cancer. It identified new factors inducing the expression of endogenous retrotransposons, including anti-viral responses and the tumor suppressor BRCA1. In cell lines, mouse ovarian epithelial cells and patient-derived tumor spheroids, BRCA1 promoted the accumulation of retrotransposon RNA and facilitated transcription of active families of retrotransposons and their insertion into the genome. Intriguingly, elevated retrotransposon expression predicted survival in ovarian cancer patients. Retrotransposons are part of a complex regulatory network in ovarian cancer, including BRCA1 contributing to patient survival. The above-described analysis strategy could also be used to identify the regulators and impacts of retrotransposons in various contexts of biology and disease in humans.

Chromosome segregation errors that occur in the developing germline generate aneuploidies which are among the leading causes of embryonic lethality, spontaneous abortions and chromosomal disorders, such as Down’s syndrome. Compared to other species, human oocytes appear to be particularly prone to suffer chromosome missegregation and the risk of aneuploid pregnancies in humans increases drastically with maternal age. Despite its particular importance for human health, relatively little is known about the basis for the high incidence of aneuploidies in human oocytes and the maternal-age effect. The identification and analysis of molecular pathways that promote genetic and chromosomal stability is important for our understanding of mechanisms that lead to aneuploidy and how it can be prevented. Here, I examine the role of the pluripotency associated Tex19.1 gene, in preventing aneuploidy during mouse female germ cell development. I demonstrate that Tex19.1-/- females are subfertile when mated with wild type males due to defects in chromosome segregation during meiosis. In contrast to Tex19.1-/- male gem cells, synaptonemal complex formation appears to be completed normally in Tex19.1-/- females but high levels of aneuploidy are evident during the second meiotic stages of oogenesis. The Tex19.1-/- females transmit these aneuploidies to their offspring likely resulting in the observed embryonic death and subfertility. In addition to its role in the female germline, I investigated the function of Tex19.1 during embryonic development. I found that Tex19.1-/- knockout mice are born at a sub- Mendelian frequency and this reduction is exacerbated in diapaused embryos, suggesting that Tex19.1 plays a role during a stage where a pluripotent state is maintained for a prolonged period of time. Furthermore, I identified high levels of aneuploidy accumulating in pluripotent stem cells in the absence of Tex19.1.

Transposable elements (TEs), also known as jumping genes, are DNA sequences capable of mobilizing and replicating within the genome. In mammals, it is not uncommon for 50% of the genome to be derived from TEs, yet they remain an underutilized tool for tracking evolutionary change. With the increasing number of publicly funded genome projects and affordable access to next-generation sequencing platforms, it is important to demonstrate the role TEs may play in helping us understand evolutionary patterns. The research presented herein utilizes TEs to investigate such patterns at the genomic, specific, and generic levels in three distinct ways. First at the genomic level, an analysis of the historical TE activity within the thirteen-lined ground squirrel (Spermophilus tridecemlineatus) shows that non-LTR retrotransposon activity has been declining for the past ~26 million years and appears to have ceased ~5 million years ago. Since most mammals, and all other rodents studied to date, have active TEs the extinction event in S. tridecemlineatus makes it a valuable model for understanding the factors driving TE activity and extinction. Second, we examined TEs as factors impacting genomic and species diversity. We found that DNA transposon insertions in Eptesicus fuscus, appear to have been exapted as miRNAs. When placed within a phylogenetic context a burst of transposon-driven, miRNA origination and the vespertilionid species radiation occurred simultaneously ~30 million years ago. This observation implies that lineage specific TEs could generate lineage specific regulatory pathways, and consequently lineage specific phenotypic differences. Finally, we utilized TEs to investigate their phylogenetic potential at the level of genus. In particular a method was developed that identified, over 670 thousand Ves SINE insertions in seven species of Myotis for use in future phylogenetic studies. Our method was able to accurately identify insertions in taxa for which no reference genome was available and was confirmed using traditional PCR and Sanger sequencing methods. By identifying polymorphic Ves insertions, it may be possible to resolve the phylogeny of one of the largest species radiations in mammals.

The 35S rDNA gene clusters on the X and Y chromosomes of Drosophila melanogaster are repeats of approximately 150 to 225 copies. Each are transcribed as a single unit by RNA Polymerase I and modified into the 18S, 5.8S, 2S and 28S ribosomal rRNAs. Reduction in the array copy number results in a bobbed phenotype, characterized by truncated bristles and herniations of abdominal cuticle, due to a decrease in protein production. In some copies within the arrays, R1 and R2 retrotransposable elements are inserted in a conserved region of the 28S gene which represses the transcription of a functional rRNA. Inserted arrays are transcribed at very low levels, but it is not clear how they are identified for repression. Similarly, a subset of uninserted arrays are silenced, and the epigenetic mechanism controlling how this decision is made it is also unknown. The CCCTC binding factor (CTCF) is a boundary element binding protein and a transcriptional regulator found in the nucleolus of differentiated mammalian cells, whose localization requires poly (ADP-ribosyl)ation. We investigated whether CTCF might be involved in the regulation of rDNA expression in Drosophila. Our data show that CTCF is found at the nucleolus of both polytene and diploid nuclei, and we have identified binding sites in the 28S gene, R1 and R2 elements by a bioinformatic approach. ChIP data indicate that CTCF binds only to the site in the R1 retrotransposon. Reduction of CTCF or members of the poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation pathway by RNAi in S2 cells causes an increase in the amount of 35S rDNA gene, R1, and R2 transcripts. In flies, CTCF and PARG mutant alleles show disrupted nucleoli and increased rRNA transcripts. Mutant alleles of CTCF suppress variegation of a P-element inserted in a 35S rDNA array, but not of elements inserted elsewhere in the genome. Consistent with a role for CTCF in rRNA regulation, we found that during oogenesis CTCF is recruited to the nucleolus of nurse cells at early stages when the demand of ribosomes is low and it leaves this compartment in later stages when the cell increases rRNA production. We conclude from these studies that CTCF acts as a regulation of rDNA transcription by RNA polymerase I.

Transposable elements (TEs) are segments of DNA that have the ability to move up and replicate themselves within the genome. The retrotransposon copia belongs to the superfamily copia and was first sequenced in D. melanogaster. We used in part of this work, which corresponded to a populational analysis of element copia in the genomes of species of the group willistoni, the portion of 5'LTR-URL for its importance as a regulatory sequence that can give us relevant phylogenetic information. Data in silico were added to the work which sought in the twelve genomes of Drosophila available the complete sequence of the element copia and the sequence of LTRs that surround the element. The wide distribution of element copia in the genus Drosophila suggests the occurrence of several cases of horizontal transfer, one of them between D. melanogaster and D. willistoni. To investigate this case we amplify by PCR the region 5'LTR-URL of two strains of D. willistoni, which showed a 95 to 98% similarity with the element copia, but the same homology was not detected in the search made by Southern blot. Some assumptions can be considered to explain these results: the copia polymorphism in the host genome, a small number of copies in a few individuals of the population or the sequence of the copia element could be in a vector. But the data are still inconclusive. The results of the searches showed a wide distribution of element copia in the genome, despite uneven, and some inconsistencies were found related to the phylogenetic analysis of the host species. Of the species examined, only three of subgenus Sophophora and two of subgenus Drosophila did not show sequences related to copia element. / Elementos transponíveis (TEs) são segmentos de DNA que têm a capacidade de mover-se e replicar-se dentro dos genomas. O retrotransposon copia pertence à superfamília copia e foi primeiramente seqüenciado em D. melanogaster. Abordamos em parte deste trabalho uma busca por seqüências relacionadas ao elemento copia nos genomas de diversas linhagens de espécies do grupo willistoni. A região estudada corresponde a porção da 5 LTR-URL, escolhida pela sua importância como seqüência regulatória e que pode nos fornecer informações filogenéticas relevantes. Dados in silico foram adicionados ao trabalho onde buscamos nos doze genomas de Drosophila disponíveis a seqüência completa de copia e a seqüência das LTRs que flanqueiam o elemento. A ampla distribuição do elemento copia no gênero Drosophila sugere indícios da ocorrência de vários casos de transferência horizontal, um deles entre D. melanogaster e D. willistoni. Para investigarmos esse caso amplificamos por PCR a região 5 LTR-URL de duas linhagens de D. willistoni, que apresentaram de 95 a 98% de similaridade com o elemento copia, porém a mesma homologia não foi detectada em rastreamentos por Southern Blot. Algumas hipóteses podem ser levadas em consideração para explicarmos tais resultados: o polimorfismo de copia nos genomas hospedeiros, pequeno número de cópias em poucos indivíduos da população ou a seqüência do elemento copia estar em um vetor. No momento não podemos excluir nenhuma dessas hipóteses. Os resultados das buscas nos genomas seqüenciados mostraram uma ampla distribuição do elemento copia, porém desigual, e algumas incongruências foram encontradas com relação à análise filogenética das espécies hospedeiras. Das espécies analisada em somente três do subgênero Sophophora e duas do subgênero Drosophila não foram encontradas seqüências relacionadas a copia.

Retrotransposons comprise a large portion of mammalian genomes. They contribute to structural changes and more importantly to gene regulation. The expansion and diversification of gene families have been implicated as sources of evolutionary novelties. Given the roles retrotransposons play in genomes, their contribution to the evolution of gene families warrants further exploration. In this study, we found a significant association between two major retrotransposon classes, LINEs and LTRs, and lineage-specific gene family expansions in both the human and mouse genomes. The distribution and diversity differ between LINEs and LTRs, suggesting that each has a distinct involvement in gene family expansion. LTRs are associated with open chromatin sites surrounding the gene families, supporting their involvement in gene regulation, whereas LINEs may play a structural role promoting gene duplication. Our findings also suggest that gene family expansions, especially in the mouse genome, undergo two phases. The first phase is characterized by elevated deposition of LTRs and their utilization in reshaping gene regulatory networks. The second phase is characterized by rapid gene family expansion due to continuous accumulation of LINEs and it appears that, in some instances at least, this could become a runaway process. We provide an example in which this has happened and we present a simulation supporting the possibility of the runaway process. Altogether we provide evidence of the contribution of retrotransposons to the expansion and evolution of gene families. Our findings emphasize the putative importance of these elements in diversification and adaptation in the human and mouse lineages.

L'évolution des plantes à fleurs est remarquable par la vitesse et l'étendue de la diversification qui l'accompagne. La variabilité génétique qui découle de cette diversification pourrait provenir de nombreux processus. Parmi ceux-ci, les éléments transposables (ET) ont été considérés comme l'un des agents les plus importants. Les ET peuvent constituer de grandes proportions des génomes de plantes (>80%) et joueraient un rôle important dans l'établissement de la diversité génétique. Notre travail contribue à la compréhension du rôle des ET dans l'évolution des génomes d'espèces du genre Coffea, genre qui appartient à la famille des Rubiacées. Plus précisément, l'objectif de l'étude était d'étudier l'impact d'ET actifs sur le génome de certaines espèces du genre Coffea. Les données obtenues ont été divisées en deux parties qui composent les deux chapitres de la thèse. Dans le premier chapitre, dix rétrotransposons (LTR-RTs) ont été identifiés et annotés dans le génome de C. canephora. Le profil de leur polymorphisme d'insertion a été analysé à l'aide des approches IRAP et REMAP chez plusieurs génotypes des espèces C. canephora (18) et C. eugenioides ( 5), qui sont les espèces parentales de l'allotétraploïde, C. arabica (21). Les résultats soulignent la dynamique évolutive de ces éléments dans ces espèces, ainsi que leur transmission. Nos résultats montrent également des modifications de la structure du génome de l'hybride. Dans la seconde partie est constitué par une analyse complète de la répartition et de l'évolution d'un rétrotransposon particulier : Copia25. Ces analyses, menées in silico et in vitro, ont montré que ce LTR-RT est largement distribué au sein de la famille des Rubiacées et qu'il est également présent chez d'autres espèces proches ou bien plus éloignées phylogénétiquement (Asterides, Rosides ou Monocotylédones). Une situation particulière est constituée par la relation étroite qui existe entre les séquences de Copia25 identifiées dans le genre Musa, monocotylédone, et dans le genre Ixora, dicotylédones de la famille des Rubiacées. Nos résultats révèlent la complexité de la dynamique évolutive de Copia25 chez les angiospermes qui implique plusieurs processus incluant un mécanisme de conservation de la séquence, un « turnover » rapide, des pertes stochastiques et le transfert horizontal.L'article présenté dans le dernier chapitre a été accepté avec modifications par la revue « Plant Molecular Biology ». il est actuellement en cours de révision pour être renvoyé prochainement en vue de son acceptation définitive. / The evolutionary history of the flowering plants is remarkable for its rapid and extensive diversification. The background of the genetic variability for this diversification is originated by numerous processes, among them the transposable elements (TEs) have been considered as one of the most important agents. TEs may compose large amounts of plant genomes and might play important roles in the promotion of genetic diversity. Our study contributes for the understanding of TEs impact on the genome of Coffea species. Coffea is a genus that belongs to the Rubiaceae family. The goal of the study was to investigate the occurrence and diversity of active TEs in Coffea species and the data obtained were divided in two parts that compose the two chapters of the thesis. In the first chapter, ten retrotransposons with LTRs (LTR-RTs) were annotated in the C. canephora genome and had their insertion polymorphism profile analyzed, using the IRAP (inter-retrotransposon-amplified polymorphism) and REMAP (Retrotransposon-microsatellite amplified polymorphism) methods, in genotypes the progenitor species, C. canephora (18) and C. eugenioides (5), and the allotetraploid hybrid, C. arabica. The results outline the evolutionary dynamics of these elements in the species, as well as their inheritance. Our results also suggest the occurrence of genomic structural changes mediated by the LTR-RTs in the hybrid. And, the second part constitutes a wide analysis of the distribution and evolution of a particular LTR-RT, Copia25. In silico and in vitro analyses showed that Copia25 is widely distributed among the Rubiaceae family and that it is also present in other distantly related species belonging to asterids, rosids and monocots. A particular situation is the closer relationship between the Copia25 sequences of Musa, a monocot, and Ixora, a dicot species (Rubiaceae). Our results disclose the complexity of the evolutionary dynamics of Copia25 in angiosperm involving several processes including sequence conservation, rapid turnover, stochastic losses and horizontal transfer. The article presented in the last chapter was accepted for publication after modifications in “Plant Molecular Biology”, it is at the present under correction to be soon sent back for final approval.

Submitted by Daniella Sodre (daniella.sodre@ufpe.br) on 2015-04-15T13:40:09Z No. of bitstreams: 2 Tese Merilane Calixto.pdf: 3296398 bytes, checksum: 4ebdcc3320e5ae2af6c49364b68099bd (MD5) license_rdf: 1232 bytes, checksum: 66e71c371cc565284e70f40736c94386 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2015-04-15T13:40:09Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 Tese Merilane Calixto.pdf: 3296398 bytes, checksum: 4ebdcc3320e5ae2af6c49364b68099bd (MD5) license_rdf: 1232 bytes, checksum: 66e71c371cc565284e70f40736c94386 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013-08-16 / FACEPE / Para compreender a organização cromossômica de elementos repetitivos na família Phyllostomidae o mapeamento físico de genes ribossomais/sequências teloméricas e do retrotransposon MAZE/L1-like foi realizado em 12 e 13 espécies, respectivamente. O número de clusters para o gene 45S variou de um a três, com exclusiva localização autossômica exceto em Carollia perspicillata (cromossomo X). Para o gene 5S um único par de sítios autossômicos foi observado em todas as espécies. A FISH com sequência telomérica hibridizou os telômeros de todas as espécies, exceto em C. perspicillata e foram observados sítios teloméricos intersticiais (ITS) na região pericentromérica da maioria das espécies. Adicionalmente, o elemento MAZE/L1-like mostrou-se presente na região centromérica (regiões heterocromáticas) dos cromossomos de todas as espécies, exceto em Chrotopterus auritus, e algumas espécies apresentaram o enriquecimento desse elemento no braço longo do cromossomo X e outras apresentaram sinais de hibridização na região proximal dos braços cromossômicos do X. Esses resultados indicam que distintas forças evolutivas atuam no genoma de Phyllostomidae, bem como podemos especular que a presença do elemento MAZE/L1-like em regiões heterocromáticas centroméricas seja pela baixa pressão seletiva que atua nestas regiões genômicas e pelo seu envolvimento com funções centroméricas. Além disso, a localização de elementos repetitivos em regiões centroméricas fornece um bom marcador molecular com aplicações em estudos de evolução e rearranjos cromossômicos.

This research focuses on non-Long Terminal Repeat (non-LTR) retrotransposons in the African malaria mosquito, Anopheles gambiae and other mosquito species. An unprecedented diversity of non-LTRs was discovered by genome analysis of the An. gambiae genome assembly. One hundred and four families were found by a reiterative and comprehensive search using the conserved reverse transcriptase domains of known non-LTRs from a number of organisms as the starting queries. These families range in copy number from a few to approximately 2000 and occupy at least 3% of the genome. An. gambiae non-LTRs represent 8 of the 15 previously defined clades, plus two novel clades, Loner and Outcast, raising the total number of known clades to 17. The first invertebrate L1 clade representatives were also found. All clades except one have families with sequence characteristics suggesting recent activity. Juan, a non-LTR of the Jockey clade originally discovered in the mosquito Culex pipiens quinquefasciatus (Mouches et al. 1991), has been implicated in horizontal transfer in three non-sibling species of the Aedes genus (Mouches, Bensaadi, and Salvado 1992). PCR was used to obtain sequences from 18 mosquito species of six genera. Phylogenetic analysis demonstrates predominant vertical inheritance of Juan elements among these species. There is strong evidence from sequence analysis supporting the recent activity of Juan in several divergent species. We hypothesize that the sustained activity (versus quick inactivation) of non-LTRs in mosquitoes may contribute to the diversity we observe in the An. gambiae genome today. Promoter and transcriptional analyses were performed for several families previously identified as potentially active elements based on sequence analysis. RT-PCR results indicate that transcripts are present in An. gambiae cell lines that contain sequences corresponding to 13 of 15 tested non-LTR families. The 5' UTRs of An. gambiae non-LTRs from the I, Jockey, and L1 clades support basal transcription in divergent mosquito cell lines from 3 species. The Jen-1 5'UTR did not support transcription in Ae. aegypti and had low activity in Ae. albopictus. In summary, this research shows that Non-LTRs have been highly successful genomic elements that have flourished in many divergent mosquito species. / Ph. D.