Die Untersuchung der posttranskriptionellen Genregulation erfordert eine eingehende Kenntnis vieler molekularer Prozesse, die auf RNA wirken, von der Prozessierung im Nukleus bis zur Translation und der Degradation im Zytoplasma. Mit dem Aufkommen von RNA-seq-Technologien können wir nun jeden dieser Schritte mit hohem Durchsatz und Auflösung verfolgen. Ribosome Profiling (Ribo-seq) ist eine RNA-seq-Technik, die darauf abzielt, die präzise Position von Millionen translatierender Ribosomen zu detektieren, was sich als ein wesentliches Instrument für die Untersuchung der Genregulation erweist. Allerdings ist die Interpretation von Ribo-seq-Profilen über das Transkriptom aufgrund der verrauschten Daten und unserer unvollständigen Kenntnis des translatierten Transkriptoms eine Herausforderung. In dieser Arbeit präsentiere ich eine Methode, um translatierte Regionen in Ribo-seq-Daten zu erkennen, wobei ein Spektralanalyse verwendet wird, die darauf abzielt, die ribosomale Translokation über die übersetzten Regionen zu erkennen. Die hohe Sensibilität und Spezifität unseres Ansatzes ermöglichten es uns, eine umfassende Darstellung der Translation über das menschlichen und pflanzlichen (Arabidopsis thaliana) Transkriptom zu zeichnen und die Anwesenheit bekannter und neu-identifizierter translatierter Regionen aufzudecken. Evolutionäre Konservierungsanalysen zusammen mit Hinweisen auf Proteinebene lieferten Einblicke in ihre Funktionen, von der Synthese von bisher unbekannter Proteinen einerseits, zu möglichen regulatorischen Rollen andererseits. Darüber hinaus zeigte die Quantifizierung des Ribo-seq-Signals über annotierte Genemodelle die Translation mehrerer Transkripte pro Gen, was die Verbindung zwischen Translations- und RNA-Überwachungsmechanismen offenbarte. Zusammen mit einem Vergleich verschiedener Ribo-seq-Datensätze in menschlichen und planzlichen Zellen umfasst diese Arbeit eine Reihe von Analysestrategien für Ribo-seq-Daten als Fenster in die vielfältigen Funktionen des exprimierten Transkriptoms. / The study of post-transcriptional gene regulation requires in-depth knowledge of multiple molecular processes acting on RNA, from its nuclear processing to translation and decay in the cytoplasm. With the advent of RNA-seq technologies we can now follow each of these steps with high throughput and resolution. Ribosome profiling (Ribo-seq) is a popular RNA-seq technique, which aims at monitoring the precise positions of millions of translating ribosomes, proving to be an essential tool in studying gene regulation. However, the interpretation of Ribo-seq profiles over the transcriptome is challenging, due to noisy data and to our incomplete knowledge of the translated transcriptome. In this Thesis, I present a strategy to detect translated regions from Ribo-seq data, using a spectral analysis approach aimed at detecting ribosomal translocation over the translated regions. The high sensitivity and specificity of our approach enabled us to draw a comprehensive map of translation over the human and Arabidopsis thaliana transcriptomes, uncovering the presence of known and novel translated regions. Evolutionary conservation analysis, together with large-scale proteomics evidence, provided insights on their functions, between the synthesis of previously unknown proteins to other possible regulatory roles. Moreover, quantification of Ribo-seq signal over annotated transcript structures exposed translation of multiple transcripts per gene, revealing the link between translation and RNA-surveillance mechanisms. Together with a comparison of different Ribo-seq datasets in human cells and in Arabidopsis thaliana, this work comprises a set of analysis strategies for Ribo-seq data, as a window into the manifold functions of the expressed transcriptome.

Female adults of many mosquito species possess distinct physiological features adapting to blood feeding for successful reproduction. The disease pathogens that are transmitted by mosquitoes have evolved to take advantages of the indispensable blood feedings to complete their transmission cycles and to survive attacks from the mosquito's innate immune system. Normal egg development and mosquito immunity are tightly controlled by tissue- and stage-specific gene expression and coordinated by many signal molecules in the mosquito. Understanding gene regulation affecting mosquito reproduction and malaria parasites infection is of paramount importance for developing novel malaria control strategies. A growing body of evidence indicates that microRNAs (miRNAs) are involved in egg maturation and immune reactions against invading pathogens in mosquitoes. However, the molecular mechanisms by which specific miRNAs selectively modulate reproduction and the survival of pathogens are largely unknown. The miRNA-induced gene-silencing pathway in mosquitoes was mostly extrapolated from the studies of flies. To explore the dynamics of miRNAs in reproduction, I used small RNAs sequencing to monitor miRNAs expression and their association with Argonaute 1 (Ago1) and Argonaute 2 (Ago2) in the malaria mosquito Anopheles gambiae (An. gambiae) during the 72-h period immediately after blood feeding. I found the abundance and Ago loading of most of the mature miRNAs were relatively stable after blood ingestion. However, miRNAs of the miR-309/286/2944 cluster were considerably upregulated after blood feeding. I confirmed that miR-309 is essential for normal egg development by depletion of endogenous miR-309 with a specific antagomir. In addition, my results showed that the Ago association of some miRNAs was not proportional to their cellular abundance implying additional regulation at miRNA integration. To investigate the functional roles of miRNAs and define context-dependent miRNA-mRNA interactions during the reproductive process, I have applied an innovative experimental approach to study miRNA-mRNA interactome. CLEAR (covalent ligation of endogenous Argonaute-bound RNAs)-CLIP can generate miRNA-mRNA chimeras from UV-irradiation stabilized Ago-miRNA-mRNA complex. My results have defined tens of thousands of miRNA-mRNA interactions in mosquitoes, including novel targets for mosquito-specific miRNAs. Verification of the predicted interactions using mRNA-seq, ribosome-profiling, and luciferase reporter assay revealed a reliable miRNA-mRNA interaction network. Based on the detected interactions, I refined the paring rules for mosquito miRNAs and illustrated the dynamic pairing between different regions of miRNAs with their targets in vivo. The miRNA-mRNA interactions were compared using this approach at multiple time points before and after blood feeding. Importantly, this study showed that the interactions were dynamic and enriched in genes that are involved in metabolisms, supporting the proposed functions of miRNAs in coordinating the gene regulation in mosquito reproduction. Plasmodium falciparum (P. falciparum) is a major human malaria parasite. To understand the functions of miRNAs in the mosquito resistance to Plasmodium infection, we analyzed the miRNA-mRNA interactions after female mosquitoes taking a P. falciparum-infected blood meal or an uninfected blood meal. Comparison of the interactions revealed enhanced miRNA-mRNA interactions after P. falciparum infection involving a group of immunity-related genes. In summary, this study has provided a systematic view and significantly advanced our understanding of the miRNA functions in mosquito reproduction and P. falciparum infection. / PHD

Les protéines sont responsables de pratiquement toutes les fonctions performées au sein du corps cellulaire et de ses alentours. Le contrôle de l’expression génique détermine l’abondance, la localisation et le moment de la production de protéines dans la cellule. Il s’agit de l’un des processus centraux à la régulation de la physiologie et du fonctionnement cellulaire. La moindre perte de balance dans ce complexe système engendre des conséquences majeures sur l’intégrité cellulaire, menant au développement de plusieurs maladies parfois incurables. La traduction de l’ARN messager en produit protéique constitue la dernière étape de l’expression génique. Elle est régulée de plusieurs façons, intrinsèques et extrinsèques à la séquence. Il s’agit également du processus cellulaire le plus coûteux en termes d’énergie. Le profilage des ribosomes (Ribo-Seq) figure parmi les récentes et prometteuses technologies ayant permis une meilleure étude des mécanismes de régulation de la traduction. Ces résultats contiennent toutefois la présence de variabilité et de bruits de nature infondée. Ce travail présente la mise en place d’une stratégie permettant la dissociation de signaux d’origine biologique de ceux ayant une origine technique. Ceci est effectué au travers de la mise en place de profiles consensus de densité ribosomale extrait d’une analyse comparative de plusieurs expériences de Ribo-Seq chez la levure (Saccharomyces cerevisiae). Les signaux biologiques dérivés par les profils consensus correspondent avec les signatures de pauses ribosomales connues, telles que les scores de repliements de l’ARNm et la charge des acides aminés. Épatamment, notre stratégie a également permis l’identification de séquences différentiellement transcrites (DT). Ces dernières jouent un rôle sur la cinétique de la phase d’élongation de la traduction, elles comportent notamment une surreprésentation de codons associés aux modifications des ARNs de transfert (tRNAs). Elles se retrouvent d’ailleurs impliquées dans le maintien de l’homéostase cellulaire, ayant une présence marquée chez des gènes prenants part aux mécanismes de biosynthèse de la macromolécule ribosomale ainsi que chez les ARNms aux sublocalisations cellulaires précises, notamment chez les mitochondries et le réticulum endoplasmique (ER). En plus de démontrer les possibilités de découvertes offertes par la technique du Ribo-Seq, cette étude présente une évidence de la nature dynamique et hétérogène du processus de traduction chez la cellule eucaryote. Elle démontre également le rôle de l’information directement encodée dans la séquence dans l’optimisation générale de l’homéostasie cellulaire. / Proteins are responsible for virtually all functions performed within and in the surroundings of a cell. The control of gene expression, which determines the amount, localisation and timing of protein production in the cell, is the central processes in the regulation of cellular physiology and function. Any disturbance in this complex system can generate important consequences on cellular integrity, sometimes leading to incurable diseases. The translation of messenger RNA into a protein product is the last step of the gene expression mechanism. It can be regulated in manifold ways, both intrinsically and extrinsically to the transcript sequence. It is also the costliest cellular process in terms of energy. Ribosome profiling (Ribo-Seq) is one of the recent and promising technologies making it possible to better study the mechanisms of translation regulation. Its results have however been shown to display variability in reproducibility and to contain noise of uncharted sources. This work presents the implementation of a strategy for dissociating signals of biological origin from those of technical origin. This is performed by the computation of a consensus profile of ribosomal density derived from a comparative analysis of several Ribo-Seq experiments in yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae). The biological signals derived by the consensus profiles correspond with signatures of known ribosomal pauses, such as mRNA folding strength and amino acid charges. Amazingly, our strategy also enabled the identification of differentially transcribed (DT) sequences. The latter have shown an over-representation of codons associated with modifications of transfer RNAs (tRNAs). They are also involved in the control of cellular homeostasis, exhibiting a marked presence in genes involved in ribosome biosynthesis as well as in mRNAs with precise translation sub-localization, particularly in mitochondria and the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). In addition to demonstrating the possibilities of discovery offered by the Ribo-Seq technique, this study also presents evidence of the dynamic and heterogeneous nature of the translation process in the eukaryotic cell. It also showcases its diverse regulatory mechanisms and the role of information directly encoded in the sequence in the general optimization of cellular homeostasis.