Many functional RNAs are required to fold into specific three-dimensional structures. A fundamental property of RNA is that its secondary structure and even some tertiary contacts are highly stable, which gives rise to independent modular RNA motifs and makes RNAs prone to adopting misfolded intermediates. Consequently, in addition to stabilizing the native structure relative to the unfolded species (defined here as stability), RNAs are faced with the challenge of stabilizing the native structure relative to alternative structures (defined as structural specificity). How RNAs have evolved to overcome these challenges is incompletely understood. Self-splicing group I introns have been used to study RNA structure and folding for decades. Among them, the Tetrahymena intron was the first discovered and has been studied extensively. In this work, we found that a version of the intron that was generated by in vitro selection for enhanced stability also displayed enhanced specificity against a stable misfolded structure that is globally similar to the native state, despite the absence of selective pressure to increase the energy gap between these structures. Further dissection suggests that the increased specificity against misfolding arises from two point mutations, which strengthen a local tertiary contact network that apparently cannot form in the misfolded conformation. Our results suggest that the structural rigidity and intricate networks of contacts inherent to structured RNAs can allow them to evolve exquisite structural specificity without explicit negative selection, even against closely-related alternative structures. To explore further how RNAs gain stability from intricate architectures, we examined a novel group I intron from red algae (Bangia). Biochemical methods and computational modeling suggest that this intron possesses general motifs of group IC1 introns but also forms an atypical tertiary contact, which has been reported previously in other subgroups and helps position the reactive helix at the active site. In the Bangia intron, the partners have been swapped relative to known group I RNAs that include this contact. This result underscores the modular nature of RNA motifs and provides insight into how structured RNAs can arrange helices and contacts in multiple ways to achieve and stabilize functional structures. / text

Group I introns are structured RNAs that have been used extensively as model systems for RNA folding because they are experimentally tractable, yet complex enough to have folding challenges associated with larger RNAs. The Tetrahymena group I intron consists of a set of conserved core helices and a set of peripheral elements. Peripheral elements surround the core helices and form long range tertiary contacts between each other and to the core. Interestingly, a long-lived misfolded state is populated that has the same long range tertiary contacts as the native state but differs locally within the core. Our lab showed that the intact periphery is necessary to specify the correct core structure, as mutating tertiary contacts or removing the P5abc peripheral element dramatically destabilized the native ribozyme relative to the misfolded form. However, we also showed that the thermodynamic benefit peripheral structure provided is accompanied by kinetic liability in folding, apparently because native tertiary contacts formed by peripheral elements around the misfolded core must come apart to allow refolding of the misfolded RNA to the native state. In addition to peripheral elements, proteins also play a role in stabilizing the native structures of many group I introns. The CYT-18 protein, which occupies the same binding site as P5abc, stabilizes the functional structures of certain group I introns by using a set of insertions that are absent in other related bacterial and mitochondrial aminoacyl tRNA synthetases. Using the P5abc deletion variant of the Tetrahymena ribozyme, I sought to further define CYT-18 roles in RNA folding by probing its thermodynamic and kinetic effects on the native state formation relative to the misfolded state. I demonstrated that CYT-18, like P5abc, provided thermodynamic stability to the native state. However, unlike P5abc, CYT-18 had no apparent effect on the refolding kinetics, suggesting that a protein co-factor can stabilize the functional structure without acquiring the associated costs in RNA folding kinetics. Furthermore, I found that the mechanism of CYT-18 action appears to be distinct from P5abc. Disruption of the long-range contact P14, which is formed between P5c and L2 and is part of the network of peripheral contacts, dramatically weakened P5abc binding to the native ribozyme core by ~10⁸ fold. Interestingly, CYT-18 maintained specific and tight binding to these mutants, which suggests that CYT-18 does not rely on a circular network of contacts to specifically stabilize the native state. Instead, the specificity may arise from a more direct and intimate contact of CYT-18 with the ribozyme core. This study gives insight into an evolutionary advantage of protein co-factors in RNA folding; proteins may offer thermodynamic assistance without inhibiting folding kinetics. / text

Group I introns belong to a class of large RNAs that catalyze their own excision from precursor RNA through a two-step process called self-splicing reaction. These self-splicing introns have often been converted into ribozymes with the ability site specifically cleave RNA molecules. One such ribozyme, derived from a self-splicing Pneumocystis carinii group I intron, has subsequently been shown to sequence specifically excise a segment from an exogenous RNA transcript through trans excision-splicing reaction.The trans excision-splicing reaction requires that the substrate be cleaved at two positions called the 5' and 3' splice sites. The sequence requirements at these splice sites were studied. All sixteen possible base pair combinations at the 5' splice site and the four possible nucleotides at the 3' splice site were tested for reactivity. It was found that all base pair combinations at the 5' splice site allow the first reaction step and seven out of sixteen combinations allow the second step to occur. Moreover, it was also found that non-Watson-Crick base pairs are important for 5' splice site recognition and suppress cryptic splicing. In contrast to the 5' splice site, 3' splice site absolutely requires a guanosine.The pathway of the trans excision-splicing reaction is poorly understood. Therefore, as an initial approach, a kinetic framework for the first step (5' cleavage) was established. The framework revealed that substrate binds at a rate expected for RNA-RNA helix formation. The substrate dissociates with a rate constant (0.9 min-1), similar to that for substrate cleavage (3.9 min-1). Following cleavage, the product dissociation is slower than the cleavage, making this step rate limiting for multiple-turnover reactions. Furthermore, evidence suggests that P10 helix forms after the 5' cleavage step and a conformational change exists between the two reaction steps of trans excision-splicing reaction. Combining the data presented herein and the prior knowledge of RNA catalysis, provide a much more detailed view of the second step of the trans excision-splicing reaction.These studies further characterize trans excision-splicing reaction in vitro and provide an insight into its reaction pathway. In addition, the results describe the limits ofthe trans excision-splicing reaction and suggest how key steps can be targeted for improvement using rational ribozyme design approach.

Les avancées en biologie moléculaire et cellulaire des dernières décennies ont permis de redéfinir le rôle de l’ARN au sein des cellules de tous les domaines du vivant. Initialement cantonné dans un rôle de support transitoire de l’information génétique du génome (ADN) en direction des effecteurs ou molécules actives (protéines et métabolites), l’ARN est maintenant associé à toutes les sphères de la biologie. Les molécules d’ARN peuvent agir autant comme génome (virus), comme molécules adaptatrices (ARNt), comme messager de l’information génétique (ARNm), comme enzyme (ribozyme) ou encore comme molécules régulatrices en cis (riboswitch) ou en trans (miARN). Nous savons aussi que la grande majorité du génome des cellules eucaryotes est transcrite à un moment ou un autre. Ces implications de l’ARN en font une cible de choix pour la recherche en génomique fonctionnelle, ainsi que pour des applications thérapeutiques. C’est pourquoi, depuis la découverte des ARN catalytiques et de l’interférence à l’ARN, beaucoup d’efforts ont été consacrés pour développer un éventail d’outils moléculaires permettant d’inhiber l’expression de gènes d’intérêt. Le défi qui se dessine aujourd’hui est le développement d’outils plus spécifiques et plus efficaces, entre autres parce que la variété d’ARN qu’un inhibiteur peut rencontrer est beaucoup plus grande qu’initialement estimée. De plus, les données recueillies lors d’essais cliniques montrent la nécessité de combiner un très grand potentiel avec une spécificité accrue. Les travaux de cette thèse se concentrent sur un outil moléculaire qui a le potentiel de répondre positivement à ce défi : le ribozyme SOFA-HDV. Mon projet de recherche visait à démontrer le potentiel de cet ARN catalytique pour le ciblage de gènes in cellulo et de développer son application. Tout d’abord, j’ai démontré que le ribozyme SOFA-HDV pouvait être utilisé pour inhiber la fonction d’un ARN in cellulo. Cette étude a également mis en évidence l’usage de ce ribozyme comme agent antiviral, avec le virus de l’hépatite C comme modèle. Le développement de nouvelles thérapies plus performantes avec peu d’effets secondaires demeure un enjeu important. Au moment de publier ces travaux, en plus d’être le premier exemple exhaustif de l’utilisation du ribozyme SOFA-HDV in cellulo, notre étude contenait le plus grand nombre de ribozymes jamais testés contre le VHC en une seule publication. Bien que modeste, l’effet observé démontre que ce ribozyme peut inhiber la réplication d’un virus dans un modèle in cellulo. Nos résultats exposent aussi la différence d’accessibilité entre les ARN de polarités positive et négative du VHC in cellulo. Par la suite, j’ai participé au développement de ribozymes SOFA-HDV ciblant le virus de l'immunodéficience humaine (VIH) dans le cadre d’une collaboration. Parmi les ribozymes testés, nous en avons identifié un dont l’activité catalytique réduit la réplication du VIH de plus de 50 % dans un modèle cellulaire. Dans le cadre de cette étude, nous avons identifié un site hautement favorable pour le ciblage par un ribozyme SOFA-HDV ou par un shARN. Des données suggèrent aussi une spécificité élevée du ribozyme SOFA-HDV. Des tests d’inhibition avec différentes souches du VIH montrent que l’activité du ribozyme est affectée avec un seul mésappariement entre le biosenseur (élément du module SOFA resposable de reconnaissance du substrat) et son site de liaison. Finalement, dans un esprit d’intégration des connaissances recueillies au fil des différents projets impliquant le ribozyme SOFA-HDV, je me suis intéressé à leur processus de sélection pour le ciblage génique. J’ai démontré l’impact de la séquence du biosenseur sur l’activité du ribozyme. J’ai également illustré l’autocoupure possible lorsque la séquence du biosenseur crée un prolongement du bloqueur (élément du module SOFA agissant comme verrou) ainsi que l’impact de la structure du substrat autant au niveau des sites de liaison du domaine de reconnaissance que du biosenseur. Ces nouveaux éléments combinés aux données antérieures sur le ribozyme HDV original m’ont permis d’élaborer une marche à suivre pour la présélection des ribozymes SOFA-HDV selon leur potentiel comme ciseaux moléculaires. En conclusion, ces travaux ont contribué à mettre de l’avant le potentiel du ribozyme SOFA-HDV pour des applications de ciblage de gènes, plus particulièrement pour des cibles virales. De ce fait, il existe maintenant des exemples concrets de l’utilisation de ce ribozyme en cellules humaines. Tout indique que la spécificité du module SOFA est préservée in cellulo et serait avantageusement comparable à d’autres technologies. Globalement, cette thèse devrait rendre l’utilisation du ribozyme SOFA-HDV plus accessible et favoriser son développement comme outil moléculaire.

Nucleic acids are important bio-macromolecules in living systems. They are involved in important functions like gene expression and regulation. Nucleoside triphosphates serve as precursors for biochemical synthesis of modified nucleic acids and nucleotide coenzymes. The modification of nucleic acids, particularly at nucleobases, can expand the function and chemical properties of nucleic acid. Herein, we report the chemical synthesis of a novel thiol-modified nucleoside S-(3-(acetylthio)propyl)-5-(mercaptomethyl)-uridine and the corresponding nucleotide via a “new synthetic methodology” developed in our laboratory. The synthesized triphosphate was used for RNA transcription. The activity and nuclease resistance of the transcribed RNA is studied. The results showed that the properties of the nucleotide with thiol functionality are as good as the native. The modified RNA can be used for RNA/protein complex structure studies and gold nanoparticles stabilizer. They can also serve as a probe in DNA/RNA microchip surface functionalization for detection of various diseases and pathogens.

Le système génétique complexe des mitochondries de plantes supérieures n'a pu être étudié par des approches transgéniques car les méthodes conventionnelles ne permettent pas de transformer ces organites. Une approche alternative a été développée au laboratoire, grâce à l'existence d'un processus naturel assurant l'import d'ARN de transfert (ARNt) du cytosol dans les mitochondries. Il a été montré qu'un mime d'ARNt peut servir in vivo de navette pour importer dans les mitochondries de plante des ARN-passagers exprimés à partir de transgènes nucléaires. L'utilisation d'un transribozyme comme séquence-passagère a permis d'obtenir l'invalidation spécifique d'un ARN messager (ARNm) majeur dans les mitochondries de cellules végétales transformées. Nous avons mis en oeuvre cette stratégie pour développer des études de régulation mitochondriale. Cinq ARNm mitochondriaux (nad9, sdh3, cob, cox3 et atp9) ont été choisis comme cibles pour des transribozymes spécifiques à tête de marteau. Après validation de l'activité de ces ribozymes in vitro, les vecteurs d'expression portant les transgènes correspondants ont servi pour transformer des cultures cellulaires de Nicotiana tabacum, des plantes d'Arabidopsis thaliana (pour nad9, cob, cox3 et atp9) et des plantes de N. tabacum (pour sdh3). L'invalidation spécifique des ARN mitochondriaux ciblés par les ribozymes a été établie in vivo. La réponse, en termes de régulation, à l'invalidation des cibles individuelles a été analysée au niveau de l'ensemble du transcriptome. Alors qu'il a été généralement considéré jusqu'à présent que les processus de régulation mitochondriaux chez les plantes se passent essentiellement au stade post-transcriptionnel, nos résultats sont fortement en faveur de mécanismes de coordination des ARNm dans les mitochondries et entre les organites et le noyau.

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<p>A key problem in the origin of life is to understand how an autocatalytic, self-replicating biopolymer system may have originated from a non-living chemical system. This thesis presents mathematical and computational models that address this issue. We consider a reaction system in which monomers (nucleotides) and polymers (RNAs) can be formed by chemical reactions at a slow spontaneous rate, and can also be formed at a high rate by catalysis, if polymer catalysts (ribozymes) are present. The system has two steady states: a ‘dead’ state with a low concentration of ribozymes and a ‘living’ state with a high concentration of ribozymes. Using stochastic simulations, we show that if a small number of ribozymes is formed spontaneously, this can drive the system from the dead to the living state. In the well mixed limit, this transition occurs most easily in volumes of intermediate size. In a spatially-extended two-dimensional system with finite diffusion rate, there is an optimal diffusion rate at which the transition to life is very much faster than in the well-mixed case. We therefore argue that the origin of life is a spatially localized stochastic transition. Once life has arisen in one place by a rare stochastic event, the living state spreads deterministically through the rest of the system. We show that similar autocatalytic states can be controlled by nucleotide synthases as well as by polymerase ribozymes, and that the same mechanism can also work with recombinases, if the recombination reaction is not perfectly reversible. Chirality is introduced into the polymerization model by considering simultaneous synthesis and polymerization of left- and right-handed monomers. We show that there is a racemic non-living state and two chiral living states. In this model, the origin of life and the origin of homochirality may occur simultaneously due to the same stochastic transition.</p> / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

The RNA World Hypothesis posits that RNA enzymes (ribozymes) catalyzed biochemical reactions in primitive cells prior to the emergence of proteins. However, the evolutionary mechanisms that gave rise to functional RNA sequences on early Earth remains largely unclear. Using a bottom-up approach that combines in vitro selection and high-throughput sequencing, we demonstrate how a self-cleaving RNA enzyme, the Hammerhead Ribozyme (HHR), may have evolved from non-catalytic sequences in the RNA World. Multiple starting libraries were generated by progressively increasing the number of randomized positions in the ribozyme’s catalytic core. The HHR was selected from each of these libraries following several rounds of amplification and enrichment. Deep sequencing analysis was then used to track evolutionary trends that gave rise to the wild-type sequence during each selection. This novel approach revealed a wide range of functional HHR variants. Notably, we discovered active hammerhead variants with mutations to previously identified essential nucleotides, shedding new light on the sequence requirements of the full-length, cis-acting ribozyme. We also demonstrate that the evolutionary trajectory of each nucleotide in the catalytic core directly correlates with their functional importance, potentially giving researchers a novel method to assess the sequence requirements of functional nucleic acids. Altogether, the in vitro evolution of ribozymes shows how complex molecules might have emerged from non-catalytic polymers in the RNA world, contributing to our understanding of the origin of life on Earth. / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc) / The origin of life is complicated by the interdependence between deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), which stores genetic information, and protein, which performs essential cellular functions. The RNA World Hypothesis attempts to solve this paradox by underpinning ribonucleic acid (RNA) as the foundation of cellular based-life, due to its unique ability to store genetic information as well as perform complex chemical reactions. However, the way that functional RNA molecules (ribozymes) emerged on early Earth in the first place remains largely unclear. We simulated molecular evolution in the laboratory using a process known as in vitro selection to demonstrate how a self-cleaving RNA enzyme, the Hammerhead Ribozyme (HHR), may have evolved in the RNA World. We also discovered different versions of the HHR, shedding new light on its structure and function. Altogether, the results from this work pave the way for a deeper understanding of ribozyme evolution and the origins of life on Earth.