The Western Mississippi Sound (WMS) is home to the largest natural oyster reef in the Gulf of Mexico and contributes substantially to Mississippi's economy. In 2019, the WMS experienced an unprecedented cyanobacterial bloom that killed fish and birds and led to shut down of beaches and oyster fishery. This thesis aims to quantify cyanobacteria from uncrewed aircraft systems (UAS) imagery and investigate the relative influence of river discharge into the WMS on cyanobacterial concentrations. Several field campaigns were undertaken to collect field data and UAS imagery from WMS. A remote sensing algorithm was developed to quantify the unique cyanobacterial pigment phycocyanin and generate temporal maps for cyanobacteria using UAS imagery. Correlations between the cyanobacteria maps and discharge of major freshwater sources to WMS revealed that Bonnet Carré Spillway had the largest contribution followed by discharge of Jourdan, Wolf, and Pearl rivers to the cyanobacterial concentrations over the oyster reef.

The aim of this study is to determine the predictability of river discharge in several major rivers on time scale varying from weeks to a century. We investigated predictability considering relationship between SST and Ganges and Brahmaputra River discharge. On seasonal time scales, statistically significant correlations are found between monthly equatorial Pacific SST and the summer Ganges discharge with lead times of 2-3 months due to oscillations of the ENSO phenomena. In addition, there are strong correlations in the southwest and northeast Pacific. The Brahmaputra discharge shows weaker relationships with tropical SST. Strong correlations relationships are found with SST in the Bay of Bengal but these are the result of very warm SSTs and exceptional Brahmaputra discharge during the summer of 1998. When this year is removed, relationships weaken everywhere except in the northwestern Pacific for the June and July discharge. Second goal is to project the behavior of future river discharge forced by the increasing greenhouse gases and aerosols from natural and anthropogenic sources. Three more rivers, the Yangtze, Blue Nile, and Murray-Darling rivers are considered. The original precipitation output from CMIP3 project has large inter-model variability, which limits the ability to quantify the regional precipitation or runoff trends. With a statistical Quantile-to-Quantile (Q-Q) technique, a mapping index was built to link each modeled precipitation and observational discharge. We also use the climatological annual cycle to choose the ¡°good¡± models. With the same indices, the future 21st century discharges of the first four rivers are simulated under different SRES scenarios. The Murray-Darling River basin does not have the similar seasonal cycle of discharge with modeled precipitations. We choose to project basin averaged precipitations instead. The Yangtze, Ganges, Brahmaputra River mean wet season discharges are projected to increase up to 15-25% at the end of the 21st century under A1B and A2. The risks of flooding also reach to a high level throughout the time. Inter-model deviations increase dramatically under all scenarios except for COMMIT. With large uncertainty, the Blue Nile River discharge and Murray-Darling River basin annual precipitation do not suggest a sign of change on multi-model mean.

This thesis aimed to study how different actors perform hydrological observations in Sweden. Target groups for the study were institutions that regularly measure water stage and river discharge, including water councils, water- and wastewater departments in municipalities, water authorities and hydropower companies. After the identification of the different actors, the study investigated how, where and why they perform hydrological observations as well as the way actors perceive the accuracy of these measurements. Information was collected through interviews and the development of a number of questionnaires. A total of 447 actors were contacted and 260 replied. The majority of them, 209, answered that they do not perform any hydrological measurements while the remaining 51 answered that they measure water stage. One of the main reasons for measuring is that many actors are facing water-rights court ruling. There were also several actors that stated that they perform hydrological measurements to make sure that the water body where water from wastewater treatment plants and storm water is emitted has sufficient water stage for environmental concerns. The hydropower companies replied that they, in addition to maintaining a water-rights court ruling, used water stage data to control the functioning of the plant. They also calculate river discharge based on production, floodgate position and stage. There were also seven municipalities, which stated that they had implemented a flood-monitoring model and that water stage data were used as input to the model. These municipalities and two other actors stated that they measure discharge or use a stage-discharge relationship (rating curve) to derive discharge data. However, in some cases, control measurements were lacking. Most actors used pressure sensors to measure stage. Their perceived levels of accuracy varied from ± 1 mm to ± 5 cm. Only five actors stated that they level their instruments regularly, which is a precondition for maintaining a correct data series. The results are useful for SMHI’s continued review of their hydrological network, although continued attempts to receive answers from all contacted actors would provide a more complete overview of hydrological observations. A study that thoroughly investigates how actors perceive the accuracy of their measurements would also give further knowledge in this field. / Examensarbetet syftade till att undersöka hur olika aktörer genomför hydrologiska mätningar i Sverige. Målgrupper för studien var aktörer vars verksamhet innefattar mätningar av vattenföring och vattenstånd. De målgrupper som identifierades var vattenråd, kommunala VA-avdelningar, vattenmyndigheter och vattenkraftbolag. När aktörerna identifierats undersöktes hur, var och varför aktörerna mäter samt hur de uppfattar noggrannheter i sina mätningar. Informationen samlades in genom frågeformulär och intervjuer. Totalt kontaktades 447 aktörer varav 260 svarade på frågorna som ställdes. Majoriteten, 209 aktörer svarade att de inte utför några hydrologiska mätningar medan resterande svarande att de mäter vattenstånd. Den anledning som flest aktörer gav till att de mäter var att de har en vattendom. Det var även flera aktörer som mätte för att försäkra sig om att recipienter för dagvatten och avloppsreningsverk hade tillräckligt högt vattenstånd för utsläpp. Vattenkraftproducenterna svarade att de, utöver att de har vattendomar, använder vattenståndsdata för att reglera kraftverken. De beräknade också vattenföringen utifrån lucköppningsgrad, vattenstånd och producerad effekt. Det var även sju kommuner som svarade att de hade implementerat modeller för översvämningsövervakning och använde vattenståndsmätningar som indata i prognosmodellerna. Dessa kommuner och två ytterligare aktörer svarade att de mäter vattenföring eller använder avbördningskurvor men i flera fall är kontrollmätningar av vattenföringen bristande. De flesta aktörerna använde tryckgivare för att mäta vattenståndet och de gav noggrannhetsintervall mellan ± 1 mm och ± 5 cm. Endast fem aktörer uppgav att de avväger mätinstrumentet vilket är en förutsättning för att upprätthålla en korrekt mätserie. Resultaten är användbar information i SMHIs utvärdering av sitt nätverk av hydrologiska mätstationer, dock skulle fortsatta försök att få svar från samtliga kontaktade aktörer ge en mer heltäckande bild av hydrologiska mätningar utförda av de olika målgrupperna. Det vore även intressant med en studie som går djupare in på hur noggrannhet uppskattas och uppfattas av de olika aktörerna.

O complexo Estuarino Lagunar Cananéia Iguape abriga um dos ecossistemas mais preservados e sensíveis do Estado de São Paulo, tornando seu litoral Sul uma região de grande importância social e ecológica. Entretanto, a ocupação desordenada e deficiências no sistema de saneamento básico, especialmente durante os meses de verão, aliados ao aumento da influência da vazão do Rio Ribeira de Iguape na circulação local, vêm contribuindo para a alteração das condições costeiras e do estuário e aumento da poluição marinha. A circulação marinha tem um papel fundamental na dispersão ou concentração de poluentes que são despejados no meio marinho. Para analisar a influência da circulação marítima em uma das principais atividades socioeconômicas da região, a pesca, foram determinadas as características das variabilidades do nível do mar e das correntes na Área de Proteção Ambiental Marinha do Litoral Sul (APAMLS) e do Estuário Lagunar Cananéia Iguape, avaliando os efeitos meteorológicos e oceânicos na zona costeira do litoral sul do Estado de São Paulo, através de modelagem numérica. Foi elaborada uma breve caracterização socioeconômica e da atividade pesqueira dos municípios desta região, por meio de síntese de dados secundários. Pode-se constatar que, como esperado, a circulação no estuário lagunar Cananéia Iguape é fortemente influenciada pela maré astronômica na sua porção sul e pela descarga fluvial ao norte, sofrendo poucas alterações devido aos efeitos meteorológicos. Por outro lado, a circulação na área costeira que abrange a APAMLS, além de sofrer grande influência da vazão do Ribeira de Iguape ao norte, tem a magnitude das correntes intensificada pela ação dos ventos e da densidade da água. A circulação marinha influencia intensamente a pesca da região e o conhecimento desse processo é fundamental para a gestão integrada dos recursos naturais e do ambiente com o desenvolvimento sustentável do litoral sul paulista. A atividade pesqueira, que teve grande redução de importância econômica para a região, apesar de ainda ser fundamental, se apoia na captura de algumas espécies; mas os problemas associados ao exercício da pesca são complexos, necessitando de um grande esforço para serem solucionados, para que se possa alcançar um avanço atrelado à manutenção da qualidade ambiental para esta região ainda bastante preservada. O conhecimento da hidrodinâmica da região dá suporte às diretrizes de uma área de preservação, pois os efeitos da circulação marinha são marcantes na região costeira, inclusive nas zonas de pesca. Assim, o manejo da APAMLS deve considerar que as correntes são em geral mais fracas durante o verão do que nos demais períodos do ano; deste modo, a dispersão de poluentes no verão, quando ocorre o maior aporte devido ao aumento do turismo, é mais lenta do que no restante do ano. Outros aspectos da circulação marítima devem ser levados em conta nos planos de manejo, como a predominância das marés e vazões fluviais no interior do estuário e a grande influência meteorológica nas áreas costeira e de plataforma adjacentes. / The complex Estuarine Lagoon Cananeia Iguape houses one of the best preserved and sensitive ecosystems of the State of São Paulo, making its southern coast a region of great social and ecological importance. However, the disorderly occupation and deficiencies in the sanitation system, especially during the summer months, combined with the increasing influence of the flow of Iguape Ribeira River in local circulation, have contributed to the change of coastal and estuary conditions and increased marine pollution. The marine circulation plays a key role in the dispersion or concentration of pollutants that are discharged into the marine environment. To analyze the influence of ocean circulation in one of the main socio-economic activities in the region, fishing, a study was performed to determine the characteristics of the variability of sea level and currents in the Marine Protected Area of the South Coast (APAMLS) and Lagoon Estuary Cananeia Iguape, evaluating the meteorological and oceanic effects in the coastal zone of the south coast of São Paulo, through numerical modeling. A brief socioeconomic characterization about the fishing activity of the municipalities of the region was developed, through synthesis of secondary data. It can be seen that, as expected, the circulation in the lagoon estuary Cananeia Iguape is strongly influenced by the astronomical tide in its southern portion and the river discharge in the north, with small influence of weather effects. On the other hand, the circulation in the coastal area encompassing APAMLS is submitted to great influence of the flow of Iguape Ribeira in the north, and the magnitude of the currents is intensified by the wind and the water density. The marine circulation strongly influences fishing in the area and the knowledge of this process is essential for the integrated management of natural resources and the environment, to a sustainable development of São Paulo south coast. The fishing industry, which had great reduction of economic importance to the region, although still important, is based on the capture of some species; but the problems associated with fishing activity are complex, requiring a great effort to be solved, to achieve a progress to maintaining environmental quality in this still well preserved region. Knowledge of hydrodynamics of the region supports the guidelines of a conservation area , since the effects of marine circulation are striking in the coastal region, including in fisheries areas . Thus, the management of APAMLS should consider that the currents are weaker in general during the summer than in other times of the year ; thus the dispersion of pollutants in summer, when the largest contribution is due to increased tourism is slower than the rest of the year. Other aspects of ocean circulation must be taken into account in the management plans , as the dominance of the tides and river flows into the estuary and the weather great influence on coastal areas and adjacent platform.

O complexo Estuarino Lagunar Cananéia Iguape abriga um dos ecossistemas mais preservados e sensíveis do Estado de São Paulo, tornando seu litoral Sul uma região de grande importância social e ecológica. Entretanto, a ocupação desordenada e deficiências no sistema de saneamento básico, especialmente durante os meses de verão, aliados ao aumento da influência da vazão do Rio Ribeira de Iguape na circulação local, vêm contribuindo para a alteração das condições costeiras e do estuário e aumento da poluição marinha. A circulação marinha tem um papel fundamental na dispersão ou concentração de poluentes que são despejados no meio marinho. Para analisar a influência da circulação marítima em uma das principais atividades socioeconômicas da região, a pesca, foram determinadas as características das variabilidades do nível do mar e das correntes na Área de Proteção Ambiental Marinha do Litoral Sul (APAMLS) e do Estuário Lagunar Cananéia Iguape, avaliando os efeitos meteorológicos e oceânicos na zona costeira do litoral sul do Estado de São Paulo, através de modelagem numérica. Foi elaborada uma breve caracterização socioeconômica e da atividade pesqueira dos municípios desta região, por meio de síntese de dados secundários. Pode-se constatar que, como esperado, a circulação no estuário lagunar Cananéia Iguape é fortemente influenciada pela maré astronômica na sua porção sul e pela descarga fluvial ao norte, sofrendo poucas alterações devido aos efeitos meteorológicos. Por outro lado, a circulação na área costeira que abrange a APAMLS, além de sofrer grande influência da vazão do Ribeira de Iguape ao norte, tem a magnitude das correntes intensificada pela ação dos ventos e da densidade da água. A circulação marinha influencia intensamente a pesca da região e o conhecimento desse processo é fundamental para a gestão integrada dos recursos naturais e do ambiente com o desenvolvimento sustentável do litoral sul paulista. A atividade pesqueira, que teve grande redução de importância econômica para a região, apesar de ainda ser fundamental, se apoia na captura de algumas espécies; mas os problemas associados ao exercício da pesca são complexos, necessitando de um grande esforço para serem solucionados, para que se possa alcançar um avanço atrelado à manutenção da qualidade ambiental para esta região ainda bastante preservada. O conhecimento da hidrodinâmica da região dá suporte às diretrizes de uma área de preservação, pois os efeitos da circulação marinha são marcantes na região costeira, inclusive nas zonas de pesca. Assim, o manejo da APAMLS deve considerar que as correntes são em geral mais fracas durante o verão do que nos demais períodos do ano; deste modo, a dispersão de poluentes no verão, quando ocorre o maior aporte devido ao aumento do turismo, é mais lenta do que no restante do ano. Outros aspectos da circulação marítima devem ser levados em conta nos planos de manejo, como a predominância das marés e vazões fluviais no interior do estuário e a grande influência meteorológica nas áreas costeira e de plataforma adjacentes. / The complex Estuarine Lagoon Cananeia Iguape houses one of the best preserved and sensitive ecosystems of the State of São Paulo, making its southern coast a region of great social and ecological importance. However, the disorderly occupation and deficiencies in the sanitation system, especially during the summer months, combined with the increasing influence of the flow of Iguape Ribeira River in local circulation, have contributed to the change of coastal and estuary conditions and increased marine pollution. The marine circulation plays a key role in the dispersion or concentration of pollutants that are discharged into the marine environment. To analyze the influence of ocean circulation in one of the main socio-economic activities in the region, fishing, a study was performed to determine the characteristics of the variability of sea level and currents in the Marine Protected Area of the South Coast (APAMLS) and Lagoon Estuary Cananeia Iguape, evaluating the meteorological and oceanic effects in the coastal zone of the south coast of São Paulo, through numerical modeling. A brief socioeconomic characterization about the fishing activity of the municipalities of the region was developed, through synthesis of secondary data. It can be seen that, as expected, the circulation in the lagoon estuary Cananeia Iguape is strongly influenced by the astronomical tide in its southern portion and the river discharge in the north, with small influence of weather effects. On the other hand, the circulation in the coastal area encompassing APAMLS is submitted to great influence of the flow of Iguape Ribeira in the north, and the magnitude of the currents is intensified by the wind and the water density. The marine circulation strongly influences fishing in the area and the knowledge of this process is essential for the integrated management of natural resources and the environment, to a sustainable development of São Paulo south coast. The fishing industry, which had great reduction of economic importance to the region, although still important, is based on the capture of some species; but the problems associated with fishing activity are complex, requiring a great effort to be solved, to achieve a progress to maintaining environmental quality in this still well preserved region. Knowledge of hydrodynamics of the region supports the guidelines of a conservation area , since the effects of marine circulation are striking in the coastal region, including in fisheries areas . Thus, the management of APAMLS should consider that the currents are weaker in general during the summer than in other times of the year ; thus the dispersion of pollutants in summer, when the largest contribution is due to increased tourism is slower than the rest of the year. Other aspects of ocean circulation must be taken into account in the management plans , as the dominance of the tides and river flows into the estuary and the weather great influence on coastal areas and adjacent platform.

No description available.

River discharge estimation is the basic hydrological information for most hydrological applications in various socioeconomic planning. Increasing the accuracy of the traditional rating curve in relation to river discharge estimation would be very valuable to hydrological applications. Suggestions have been made that the traditional power function rating curve should be divided into several segments because this is often motivated by the physical characteristics of the river. Each curve is commonly constructed by regression and each requires 3 estimated parameters. However stage-discharge data is often scarce, and this scarcity could lead to overparametrization and deterioration of accuracy. By constructing many unsegmented and segmented rating curves accounting for measurement uncertainty, the models can be validated, it can be determined if segmented rating curves suffers from overparametrization. The results showed that two-segmented rating curves did not yield better fits to data, and nor did it generate larger errors than unsegmented rating curves in extrapolation. Segmentation only reduced errors in low flow interpolation, when there is a clear segmentation.  It could also be concluded that unsegmented rating curves were slightly more robust when extrapolating. The biggest impact on rating curve errors was shown not to be determined by segmentation, but rather much more dependent on the amount of discharge measurement uncertainty or choice of regression method. With a mean discharge uncertainty of ±5 %, the errors from in high flow was 60 % in interpolation and 35 % in extrapolation. For low flows, the interpolation errors were around 95 % end extrapolation error estimation was 250 %. Conclusions could also be made that the relative errors from rating curves increased with lower discharges. Other important regression factors, such as heteroscedasticity, sometimes showed to have substantial impact on rating curve regressions, generally reduced from 59 % occurrence in unsegmented rating curves to 14-15 % in segmented rating curves. / Uppskattning av vattenflöden i vattendrag är den grundläggande informationen för de flesta hydrologiska applikationer vid olika typer av socioekonomisk planering. Att förbättra noggrannheten i avbördningskurvor då vattenflödet uppskattas vid en mätstation skulle vara värdefullt för de flesta tillämpningar där vattenflöden används. Tidigare studier har föreslagit att avbördningskurvor borde delas upp i flera segment, eftersom vattendrag inte sällan har olika segment med olika fysikaliska karaktärer. Varje segment kräver dock att 2-3 regressionsparametrar bestäms, men flödesmätningar vid olika vattennivåer är ofta få, och knappheten kan göra att en utökad modell blir överparametriserad och än mer osäker.   Genom att konstruera många avbördningskurvor, segmenterade och osegmenterade, kan dessa valideras mot valideringsdata och var det möjligt se om segmenterade avbördningskurvor blev överparametriserade. Studien visade att segmenterade avbördningskurvor vid kalibrering, interpolation och extrapolation generellt inte gav bättre prediktion än osegmenterade avbördningskurvor. Vid låga flöden och tydligt motiverade segmenteringar gav segmenterade avbördningskurvor en bättre interpolation, men dock inte vid extrapolation, vilket är en indikation att segmenterade avbördningskurvor var något överparametriserade. Den största inverkan på att minska felen i avbördningskurvor var var att minska mätosäkerheten i flödesmätningarna. Med en genomsnittlig mätosäkerhet i flödesmätningarna på ±5 % kunde osäkerheten kvantifieras till kring 60 % för interpolerade osegmenterade avbördningskurvor vid höga flöden och kring 95 % vid låga flöden. Variansen var dock stor. Osäkerheten från modellvalideringen av extrapolation för osegmenterade avbördningskurvor vid höga flöden kvantifierades till kring 35 % vid höga flöden och kring 250 % vid låga flöden. Resultaten visade att de relativa felen från avbördningskurvor blev större för ju lägre flödet blir.   Heteroskedastitet, som kan generera osäkerheter i avbördningskurvor, visade sig vara vanligare (59 %) i osegmenterade avbördningskurvor jämfört med segmenterade (14-15 %). Även antalet flödesmätningar hade en betydelse för felen i avbördningskurvor. / Avbördningskurva, icke-linjär regression, flöde, flödesmätning, osäkerhet, validering, hydrologi, överparametrisering, vattenstånd

No description available.

This thesis examines previously unresolved issues regarding the fluid dynamics of the spread of buoyant water into a rotating environment. We focus in particular on the role that finite potential vorticity and background turbulence play in determining the flow properties. When water of an anomalous density enters into an oceanic basin, gravity-driven surface flows can be established as a result of the density difference. These flows are often of a sufficiently large scale that the dynamics are affected by the Coriolis force arising from the rotation of the earth. This causes the formation of a large outflow gyre near to the source which feeds into a propagating gravity current that is confined to the coast. Previous experimental work in this field has sought to simplify the problem through the use of a point source and a quiescent ambient. We extend this work to provide a better representation of the real-world flow by introducing a source of finite depth and background turbulence to the rotating ambient. This study seeks to answer three key questions that are critical to the understanding of the flow behaviour in this scenario. First, what is the effect of the finite potential vorticity of the outflow on the properties of the outflow vortex and the boundary current? Second, what role does the presence of the the outflow vortex play in determining the behaviour of the current? Third, what is the effect of background turbulence on the flow properties? To carry out the investigation, experiments were conducted in the laboratory and compared with a theoretical description of the flow. The currents are generated inside a rotating tank filled with saltwater by the continuous release of buoyant freshwater from a source structure located at the fluid surface. A horizontal source of finite depth is used to introduce finite potential vorticity into the outflow. The impact of background turbulence is examined by introducing an oscillating grid into the rotating tank. We find that the finite potential vorticity of the outflow plays an important role in determining the flow properties for sufficiently low Rossby and Froude number. As the value of these parameters is increased a zero potential vorticity model is able to capture the key elements of the flow behaviour. The outflow vortex is found to act as a time-varying source to the boundary current, with the current velocity fixed by the vortex velocity field. The vortex vorticity is seen to decrease with time, while the vortex radius continues to increase at late times despite the vortex having reached a limiting depth, which enables potential vorticity to be conserved and the current to be supplied with a non-zero velocity. Finally, the structure of the background turbulence is found to be key in determining the effect that it has on the flow properties, with different behaviours observed for three-dimensional and quasi- two-dimensional turbulence.

Evapotranspiration is a nexus for planetary energy and carbon cycles, as yet poorly constrained. Here I use stable isotopes of oxygen and hydrogen to partition flux of water due to plant transpiration from the direct evaporative flux from soils, water bodies and plant. The study areas, Langat and Kelantan watersheds represent examples of domains dominated by the respective Southwest and Northeast monsoons on the two sides of the main orographic barrier (Titiwangsa mountain range). Mean annual rainfall for the Langat watershed, obtained from 30 years of hydrological data, is 2145 ± 237 mm. Tentatively, 48% of this precipitation returns to the atmosphere via transpiration (T), with 33% partitioned into discharge (Q), 8% into interception (In), and 11% into evaporation (Ed). In the Kelantan watershed, the mean annual rainfall, also based on the 30 year hydrological data, is 2383 ± 120 mm. Similar to Langat, the T accounts for 43% of precipitation (P), 45% is discharged into South China Sea (Q), 12% partitioned into interception (In) and tentatively 0% for evaporation (Ed). Ed for the Langat watershed represents only a small proportion in terms of volumetric significance, up to almost ~11% with strong effect on the isotopic fingerprints of waters associated with the summer Southwest Monsoon (SWM). Note, however, that insignificant Ed for the Kelantan watershed may be an artefact of rain and river water sampling at only coastal downstream portion of the watershed. High humidity (80%) also was recorded for the Malaysian Peninsula watershed. T appropriates about half of all solar energy absorbed by the continents, here ~1000*103 g H2O m-2 yr-1 similar to other tropical regions at 900-1200*103 g H2O m-2 yr-1. The associated carbon fluxes are ~ 1300 g C m-2yr-1, independent of P. Vegetation responses to solar irradiance, via T and photosynthesis reflects the importance of stomatal regulation of the water and carbon fluxes. In order to maintain high transpiration in the tropical region, “constant” water supply is required for continuous pumping of water that delivers nutrients to the plant, suggesting that water and carbon cycle are co-driven by the energy of the sun. The existence of the water conveyor belt may be precondition for nutrient delivery, hence operation of the carbon cycle. Potentially, this may change our perspective on the role that biology plays in the water cycle. In such perspective, the global water cycle is the medium that redistributes the incoming solar energy across the planet, and the anatomical structures of plants then help to optimize the loop of energy transfer via evaporation and precipitation in the hydrologic cycle. The main features of aquatic geochemistry of the Langat and Kelantan rivers inferred from the Principal Component Analysis are controlled by three components that explain 80% and 82% of total variances. These components are reflecting of the geogenic factor with superimposed pollution, the latter particularly pronounced in urbanized sections of the Langat river and dominant in downstream of the Kelantan river. There is no correlation between seasonal variations in major ion chemistry and environmental variables such as precipitation, discharge, temperature or solar activity.