Résumé non transmis / Summary not transmitted

La première partie présente l'état des connaissances actuelles sur les souverains et souveraines de Navarre et de Franceau XVI' siècle. Elle recense les publications de leurs écrits ainsi que les différents angles sous lesquels ils ont étéenvisagés jusqu'à présent par les chercheurs. Elle précise enfin selon quels critères a été établi le corpus étudié (choixdes lettres, compléments inédits).La deuxième partie définit les contextes culturels et matériels des correspondances royales. Elle fait le point sur l'étatdu genre épistolaire à la Renaissance, sur l'éducation et la culture des princes et princesses, ainsi que sur les contraintesmatérielles qui pèsent sur la rédaction de leurs missives.Les deux dernières parties sont consacrées à l'étude des lettres. Les stratégies discursives mises en place par les rois etles reines dépendent du rapport qu'ils entretiennent avec leur destinataire. Cela oblige à distinguer les lettres adresséesaux membres de la sphère publique de celles qui sont réservées à la sphère privée. Au-delà de cette distinction, onconstate que les différences stylistiques dépendent également de l'exercice (ou non) de l'autorité royale ainsi que dugenre (masculin ou féminin) de l'épistolier. Les différences de genre ne sont nullement <<naturelles>>, mais construitessocialement pour répondre à des objectifs précis.À partir de ces travaux, on peut faire l'hypothèse que la pratique épistolaire des rois et des reines exerce une influencesur les théories de l'époque. Enfin, ils confirment qu'au-delà d'une pratique d'écriture commune, la plupart dessouverains et souveraines possèdent un véritable style personnel. / The first part shows what is known toda y about the Royals of Navarre and France in the sixteenth century. It lists thepublications of their writings as well as different researchers' points of view about them up to now. Finally it specifiesunder which criteria the studied corpus bas been established (choice of letters, unpublished works).The second part describes the cultural and material contexts of the royal correspondence. It demonstrates the genre ofletter writing during the Renaissance period, the education and culture of princes and princesses as weil as the materialconstraints which influenced the ability of writing their letters.The last two parts are devoted to the study of letters. The language used by the kings and queens depended on therelationship between them and their correspondents. This makes a distinction between letters to members of the publicand those intended for personal correspondence. Beyond this distinction, it is noticed thal the differences in styledepend also on the exercising (or not) of royal authority, as well as on the gender of the writer. The different genresused in writing are in no way "natural" but dictated by society in order to address specific requirements.From these works the following hypothesis can be made: the kings' and queens' practices of letter writing influencedthe theories of the period. Furtherrnore, this study confirms thal beyond the practice of a universal way of writing, themajority of kings and queens bad their own unique persona! style.

Neste trabalho nos propomos analisar a concessão de perdão para os crimes contra a pessoa e sua honra durante o reinado de D. João II [1481-1495]. Para tanto inferimos que, muito embora fosse uma prerrogativa do rei, uma atribuição que evidenciava a pretensão do poder régio em tutelar outros poderes que exerciam competência judicial, este ato gracioso implicava, fundamentalmente, numa negociação entre o monarca e seus súditos. Essa negociação envolvia obrigações e reciprocidades, que encerravam o rei e os três estamentos da sociedade numa complexa relação de subordinação e dependência. Desta forma, procuraremos evidenciar que o exercício da justiça e da misericórdia contribuiu para reforçar a imagem de D. João II como promotor da justiça e do bem-comum e mantenedor da ordem no corpo social. Assim, punição e perdão, justiça e misericórdia, serão trabalhados como aspectos complementares no processo de legitimação e fortalecimento do poder real, expresso de maneira muito peculiar na divisa adotada pelo Príncipe Perfeito: polla ley polla grey. / In this work we propose the analysis on the concession of pardon for the crimes against the person and his honor throughout the reign of John II [1481 1495]. We consider that though this concession was a kings attribute, an attempt of the royal power to regulate the other powers that had judicial competence, this gracious act implied, fundamentally, in a negotiation between the monarch and his subjects. Such negotiation involved obligation and reciprocity that placed the king and the three states of this society in a complex relation of subordination and dependence. Therefore we will attempt to show that the exercise of justice and mercy contributed to strengthen the image of John II as a supporter of justice and the common good as well as the maintainer of order in the social body. Hence punishment and forgiveness, justice and mercy will be worked as complementary aspects in the process of legitimacy and fortification of the royal power, expressed in a very peculiar way in the motto adopted by the Perfect Prince: polla ley polla grey.

Les cisterciens se sont implantés dans de nombreux diocèses au cours des XIIe et XIIIe siècles. Celui de Bourges se singularise de ceux qui l'environnent par la quantité et la précocité de ses fondations. La première explication à ce phénomène se trouve dans l'évidente piété de l'époque, relayée, voire amplifiée, par des archevêques entretenant des relations importantes avec Bernard de Clairvaux. Mais il existe également une véritable "politique" d'implantations, certes gérée par ces derniers, mais sous-tendue par les luttes d'influences auxquelles se livrent les différentes "factions" qui se partagent ce territoire. Il apparaît ainsi nettement que les établissements tiennent un rôle politique aussi bien que religieux. C'est dans ce contexte que le diocèse de Bourges accueille quatorze établissements. Leur étude individuelle a fait surgir de l'ombre certains d'entre eux, totalement ignorés des chercheurs ou en grande partie méconnus. Ainsi, d'un point de vue historique, il a été possible d'affiner les dates de fondation et parfois de préciser l'identité des fondateurs ainsi que leurs motivations. L'étude architecturale, pour sa part, a engendré la restitution des plans des édifices ou tout au moins une hypothèse raisonnable de ceux-ci. Elle a également servi à recadrer les périodes de construction et à identifier l'introduction et l'utilisation de techniques nouvelles. Il en résulte un ensemble cohérent au sein duquel se transmettent les avancées des techniques architecturales et derrière lequel transparaît une influence de l'ordre, cette dernière étant plutôt structurelle que formelle. / The Cistercians settled in numerous dioceses throughout the 12th and 13th centuries. The diocese of Bourges stands alone amongst those around il for the quantity and earliness of its foundations. The first explanation to this phenomenon can be found in the obvious piety during this era, transmitted, if not amplified, by archbishops maintaining links to Bernard de Clairvaux. There also exists, however, a true settlement "policy", managed, it is true, by the archbishops, but intensified by the struggle for influence between the various "factions" sharing this territory. It is therefore clearly apparent that these institutions hold a role as much political as religious. It is in this context that the diocese of Bourges hosts fourteen institutions. Individual study has shed light on some of them, which had been totally ignored by scholars, or had at best been unrecognised. Thus, from a historical point of view, it has been possible to pinpoint the founding dates and at times to reveal the identity of the founding members, as well as what motivated them. For it part, architectural study was the point of origin of the rediscovery of the buildings' plans, or at least a reasonable hypothesis for them. It also helped to establish new time brackets for the construction and to identify the dates of introduction and use of new techniques. A coherent whole therefore emerges, at the heart of which advances in architectural techniques are shared and behind which transpires the influence of the order, more structural than formal.

La thèse est dédiée à analyser les possibilités du pouvoir royal à l’époque des derniers Carolingiens en étudiant le règne de Charles III le Simple (893/898-923) et en le comparant avec ceux de ses prédécesseurs depuis la mort de son grand-père Charles II le Chauve en 877, c’est ce que permet aussi l’identification des développements à moyen terme des structures politiques du monde Franc. Le pouvoir royal se devait de naître des interactions entre le roi et les nobles autour de lui. Selon les interprétations de la recherche récente, ces derniers sont considérés comme des partenaires du premier, qui participent dans le processus de sa prise de décision et qui fonctionnent comme des exécuteurs des décisions prises en consensus, transmettant ainsi le pouvoir royal dans les différentes parties du royaume. La question des marges de manœuvre du pouvoir royal est donc une question des relations entre le roi et les nobles qui l’entourent. En conséquence, l’étude de ces relations constitue l’axe central de cette étude. Les réseaux des nobles en contact avec les rois sont identifiés et l’influence des nobles individuels ainsi que des groupes est déterminée en analysant les diplômes royaux et en les mettant dans le contexte des sources narratives. Pendant les règnes de Louis II le Bègue (877-897) et ses fils Louis III (879-882) et Carloman II (882-884), jusqu'à celui de Charles III le Gros (884-888), l’existence d’un et plus tard de deux groupes qui dominaient la politique royale est révélée. Cette image change sous le dernier, qui promouvait certains nobles qui entretenaient des liens avec ces anciens groupes. Le manque de cohérence de cette nouvelle élite devient évident après la mort de Charles le Gros, quand des groupes rivaux soutinrent différents candidats pour le trône vacant. Cette fragmentation de l’élite du royaume continua pendant le règne d’Eudes (888-898) jusqu’aux premières années de Charles le Simple. Ce n’est qu’après la mort de certaines figures clés que l’intégration des nobles qui s’opposaient au nouvel ordre dans le cercle autour du nouveau roi devint possible. Pendant les prochaines décennies du règne de Charles, ce cercle fut modifié encore plusieurs fois, par l’addition d’un grand nombre de nobles après l’acquisition de la Lotharingie ainsi que par l’ascendance d’un nouveau groupe favorisé par Charles vers les dernières années 910s. Cette analyse constitue la base pour une évaluation des activités des rois concernant leurs pairs et les Vikings. Une collaboration étroite entre les rois est mise en lumière pour avoir d’une part stabilisé les relations entre ces rois et leurs nobles, et d’autre part, pour avoir limité aussi au même moment les marges de manœuvres des rois concernant leurs propres intérêts dans les royaumes voisins. Concernant les mesures prises contre les Vikings, des stratégies purement militaires pour sécuriser le royaume s’avèrent avoir été inefficaces. Ce n'était seulement que par des accords diplomatiques avec les Vikings, négociés et mis en œuvre avec le soutien des grands, que des succès sur le long terme pouvaient être obtenus. Quand pour la majeure partie de son règne Charles le Simple profitait du soutien des nobles, sa fin arriva quand même par leur rébellion en 922. Cette contradiction est résolue par l’introduction du concept sociologique de la confiance. Son importance dans les relations entre les rois et les nobles est déterminée par l’analyse de différentes situations de conflits. Il semble que la détérioration des liens entre Charles et les grands autour de lui était causée par la perception de certaines actions royales comme des violations des normes par les nobles ainsi que sa mauvaise grâce à employer une langue appropriée pour répondre à cette crise de confiance. / The thesis aims to determine the possibilities of royal power in the late Carolingian age, analysing the reign of Charles III the Simple (893/898-923). His predecessors’ reigns up to the death of his grandfather Charles II the Bald (843-877) serve as basis for comparison, thus also allowing to identify mid-term developments in the political structures shaping the Frankish world toward the turn from the 9th to the 10th century. Royal power is understood to have derived from the interaction of the ruler with the nobles around him. Following the reading of modern scholarship, the latter are considered as partners of the former, participating in the royal decision-making process and at the same time acting as executors of these decisions, thus transmitting the royal power into the various parts of the realm. Hence, the question for the royal room for manoeuvre is a question of the relations between the ruler and the nobles around him. Accordingly, the analysis of these relations forms the core part of the study. Based on the royal diplomas, interpreted in the context of the narrative evidence, the noble networks in contact with the rulers are revealed and their influence examined. Thus, over the course of the reigns of Louis II the Stammerer (877-879) and his sons Louis III (879-882) and Carloman II (879-884) up until the rule of Charles III the Fat (884-888), the existence of first one, then two groups of nobles significantly influencing royal politics become visible. This image changes only under the latter, when individual nobles originating in the immediate vicinity of the older groups were promoted. The missing inner coherence of this new elite is revealed after the death of Charles the Fat, when rivalling parties formed, which supported different candidates for the vacant throne. This fragmentation of the leading nobility continued throughout Odo’s reign (888-898) until the first years of Charles the Simple’s rule. Only then, after the death of political key figures, the full integration of those nobles opposing the new king into the circle around him became possible. Over the course of the next decades this circle underwent a number of further modifications, most of all by the integration of numerous nobles after the addition of Lotharingia to Charles’ rule as well as the ascent of a new group of nobles promoted by the king in the late 910s. These analyses constitute the basis for an evaluation of the rulers’ activities in regard to their peers as well as the Vikings. A close cooperation between the rulers is revealed to have had a stabilizing effect on the relations between the rulers and the nobles. At the same time, however, these alliances also limited their room for manoeuvre when it came to pursuing their interests against their partners. Concerning the politics pursued against the Vikings, purely military measures to secure the realm remained rather ineffective. Longer lasting success could only be obtained by diplomatic agreements with the Northmen, negotiated and implemented with the support of the leading nobles of the realm. While for the most part of his reign Charles enjoyed the support of the leading nobles, his rule, nevertheless, remains under the shadow of their rebellion against him in 922. Outlining the importance of trust by analysing different conflict situations, this contrast is resolved by arguing that the deterioration of the relations between Charles and the nobles was caused by repeated actions of the king, which were perceived as violations of the existing norms and a failure to adjust his symbolic language to respond to this crisis.

Neste trabalho nos propomos analisar a concessão de perdão para os crimes contra a pessoa e sua honra durante o reinado de D. João II [1481-1495]. Para tanto inferimos que, muito embora fosse uma prerrogativa do rei, uma atribuição que evidenciava a pretensão do poder régio em tutelar outros poderes que exerciam competência judicial, este ato gracioso implicava, fundamentalmente, numa negociação entre o monarca e seus súditos. Essa negociação envolvia obrigações e reciprocidades, que encerravam o rei e os três estamentos da sociedade numa complexa relação de subordinação e dependência. Desta forma, procuraremos evidenciar que o exercício da justiça e da misericórdia contribuiu para reforçar a imagem de D. João II como promotor da justiça e do bem-comum e mantenedor da ordem no corpo social. Assim, punição e perdão, justiça e misericórdia, serão trabalhados como aspectos complementares no processo de legitimação e fortalecimento do poder real, expresso de maneira muito peculiar na divisa adotada pelo Príncipe Perfeito: polla ley polla grey. / In this work we propose the analysis on the concession of pardon for the crimes against the person and his honor throughout the reign of John II [1481 1495]. We consider that though this concession was a kings attribute, an attempt of the royal power to regulate the other powers that had judicial competence, this gracious act implied, fundamentally, in a negotiation between the monarch and his subjects. Such negotiation involved obligation and reciprocity that placed the king and the three states of this society in a complex relation of subordination and dependence. Therefore we will attempt to show that the exercise of justice and mercy contributed to strengthen the image of John II as a supporter of justice and the common good as well as the maintainer of order in the social body. Hence punishment and forgiveness, justice and mercy will be worked as complementary aspects in the process of legitimacy and fortification of the royal power, expressed in a very peculiar way in the motto adopted by the Perfect Prince: polla ley polla grey.

Esta pesquisa teve como objetivo estudar o processo de fortalecimento da autoridade real em Portugal no século XIII, principalmente durante o reinado de D. Afonso III (1245- 1279), e discutir como a introdução de uma nova forma de religiosidade, representada pela Ordem Franciscana, influenciou nessa questão. Partiu-se do entendimento das relações sociais, políticas e religiosas da sociedade e de suas modificações ao longo dos reinados de Afonso II (1211-1223) e Sancho II (1223-1245), que geraram as pré-condições que possibilitaram a atuação de Afonso III. Em Portugal, na primeira metade do século XIII, houve uma grande mudança na forma de aplicação da justiça, com a substituição do uso do direito consuetudinário pelo direito canônico. Novas formas de religiosidade, como a pregada pelos frades menores, adentraram ao reino, atraindo fiéis, inclusive de outras observâncias religiosas e tornando-se uma importante força política. Além disso, as relações entre a realeza e a aristocracia tradicional (formada por nobres das antigas linhagens e por membros com altos cargos eclesiásticos) foram abaladas por divergências envolvendo bens, privilégios e jurisdições. Afonso III foi um rei com grande poder de articulação política, que soube utilizar a conjuntura a seu favor. Remodelou a estrutura administrativa e consolidou importantes acordos políticos com Castela e com membros dos grupos sociais ascendentes (como a nobreza de origem recente e os franciscanos e dominicanos) que, como ele, buscavam expandir seu poder e suas áreas de influência na sociedade. Uma das principais consequências dessas ações foi o fortalecimento da autoridade real juntamente com uma forte ampliação da atuação franciscana no reino. / The objective of this research was to study the process of strengthening of royal authority in Portugal in the thirteenth century, especially during the reign of D. Afonso III (1245-1279), and discuss how the introduction of a new form of religion, represented by the Franciscan Order, influenced in this matter. The social, political and religious conditions that made possible the actions adopted by Afonso III emerged during the reigns of Afonso II (1211-1223) and Sancho II (1223-1245). In Portugal, in the first half of the thirteenth century, there was a great change in the way the justice was applied, with the replacement of the consuetudinary law by the canon law. New forms of religiosity, as the one preached by the Franciscan friars, crossed into the kingdom, attracting believers, even from other religious observances. With that, the Franciscans became an important political force. Moreover, the relationship between the royalty and the traditional aristocracy were shaken by disagreements involving property, privileges and jurisdictions. Afonso III was a king with great capacity to articulate policy and managed the situation in his favor. He remodeled the administrative structure and established important political agreements with Castela and with members of specific social groups who, like himself, wanted to expand their political power and their areas of influence in society. One of the main consequences of these actions was the strengthening of royal authority in conjunction with a strong expansion of Franciscan activity in the kingdom.

Na concepção do mundo cristão, as mulheres foram criadas a partir de um fragmento masculino para lhe serem sujeitas, nunca iguais. Essa ordenação vai determinar a concepção sobre o feminino e a importância da imposição de submissão às mulheres. Sua inferioridade era impedimento para o ofício religioso e as leis do reino reconheciam a fraqueza própria do seu sexo que lhes vedava o acesso a ofícios públicos. Entretanto, é preciso considerar que entre o que se preconizava e o que de fato se praticava havia um cuidadoso jogo de possibilidades. A condição feminina definida eminentemente por sua ligação e sua relação com um homem que as caracterizava como mulheres solteiras, casadas ou viúvas não representa a multitude de papéis que poderiam desempenhar ao longo de sua vida. Seu estado não era necessariamente um obstáculo para o desempenho de outros papéis. O entrecruzamento dos dados obtidos com a análise da lei e da prática nos mostra que não precisa haver aí uma dicotomia. No seu viver em sociedade, as mulheres conjugavam diversos fatores e assumiam facetas muito mais ricas do que consideravam os escritos dos teólogos e moralistas. / In the design of the Christian world women were created from a mans fragment to be his subject and never an equal. This disposition would determine the conception of the feminine and the importance of the control to which women should be referred. Their inferiority was an obstacle for religious service and the laws of the kingdom recognized the archetypal weakness of their sex forbidding them access to public offices. However it is necessary to consider that between what was preached and what was practiced there were many possibilities. Womens social condition defined by their connection and relationship with a man who characterized them as a single, married or widowed women did not represent the multitude of roles they could play throughout his life. Their condition was not necessarily an obstacle to the performance of other roles. The data obtained with the analysis of the law and practice shows that it didnt had to be a dichotomy. In their social lives women combined several factors and assumed much richer facets than that considered in the writings of theologians and moralists.

Na concepção do mundo cristão, as mulheres foram criadas a partir de um fragmento masculino para lhe serem sujeitas, nunca iguais. Essa ordenação vai determinar a concepção sobre o feminino e a importância da imposição de submissão às mulheres. Sua inferioridade era impedimento para o ofício religioso e as leis do reino reconheciam a fraqueza própria do seu sexo que lhes vedava o acesso a ofícios públicos. Entretanto, é preciso considerar que entre o que se preconizava e o que de fato se praticava havia um cuidadoso jogo de possibilidades. A condição feminina definida eminentemente por sua ligação e sua relação com um homem que as caracterizava como mulheres solteiras, casadas ou viúvas não representa a multitude de papéis que poderiam desempenhar ao longo de sua vida. Seu estado não era necessariamente um obstáculo para o desempenho de outros papéis. O entrecruzamento dos dados obtidos com a análise da lei e da prática nos mostra que não precisa haver aí uma dicotomia. No seu viver em sociedade, as mulheres conjugavam diversos fatores e assumiam facetas muito mais ricas do que consideravam os escritos dos teólogos e moralistas. / In the design of the Christian world women were created from a mans fragment to be his subject and never an equal. This disposition would determine the conception of the feminine and the importance of the control to which women should be referred. Their inferiority was an obstacle for religious service and the laws of the kingdom recognized the archetypal weakness of their sex forbidding them access to public offices. However it is necessary to consider that between what was preached and what was practiced there were many possibilities. Womens social condition defined by their connection and relationship with a man who characterized them as a single, married or widowed women did not represent the multitude of roles they could play throughout his life. Their condition was not necessarily an obstacle to the performance of other roles. The data obtained with the analysis of the law and practice shows that it didnt had to be a dichotomy. In their social lives women combined several factors and assumed much richer facets than that considered in the writings of theologians and moralists.

Esta pesquisa teve como objetivo estudar o processo de fortalecimento da autoridade real em Portugal no século XIII, principalmente durante o reinado de D. Afonso III (1245- 1279), e discutir como a introdução de uma nova forma de religiosidade, representada pela Ordem Franciscana, influenciou nessa questão. Partiu-se do entendimento das relações sociais, políticas e religiosas da sociedade e de suas modificações ao longo dos reinados de Afonso II (1211-1223) e Sancho II (1223-1245), que geraram as pré-condições que possibilitaram a atuação de Afonso III. Em Portugal, na primeira metade do século XIII, houve uma grande mudança na forma de aplicação da justiça, com a substituição do uso do direito consuetudinário pelo direito canônico. Novas formas de religiosidade, como a pregada pelos frades menores, adentraram ao reino, atraindo fiéis, inclusive de outras observâncias religiosas e tornando-se uma importante força política. Além disso, as relações entre a realeza e a aristocracia tradicional (formada por nobres das antigas linhagens e por membros com altos cargos eclesiásticos) foram abaladas por divergências envolvendo bens, privilégios e jurisdições. Afonso III foi um rei com grande poder de articulação política, que soube utilizar a conjuntura a seu favor. Remodelou a estrutura administrativa e consolidou importantes acordos políticos com Castela e com membros dos grupos sociais ascendentes (como a nobreza de origem recente e os franciscanos e dominicanos) que, como ele, buscavam expandir seu poder e suas áreas de influência na sociedade. Uma das principais consequências dessas ações foi o fortalecimento da autoridade real juntamente com uma forte ampliação da atuação franciscana no reino. / The objective of this research was to study the process of strengthening of royal authority in Portugal in the thirteenth century, especially during the reign of D. Afonso III (1245-1279), and discuss how the introduction of a new form of religion, represented by the Franciscan Order, influenced in this matter. The social, political and religious conditions that made possible the actions adopted by Afonso III emerged during the reigns of Afonso II (1211-1223) and Sancho II (1223-1245). In Portugal, in the first half of the thirteenth century, there was a great change in the way the justice was applied, with the replacement of the consuetudinary law by the canon law. New forms of religiosity, as the one preached by the Franciscan friars, crossed into the kingdom, attracting believers, even from other religious observances. With that, the Franciscans became an important political force. Moreover, the relationship between the royalty and the traditional aristocracy were shaken by disagreements involving property, privileges and jurisdictions. Afonso III was a king with great capacity to articulate policy and managed the situation in his favor. He remodeled the administrative structure and established important political agreements with Castela and with members of specific social groups who, like himself, wanted to expand their political power and their areas of influence in society. One of the main consequences of these actions was the strengthening of royal authority in conjunction with a strong expansion of Franciscan activity in the kingdom.