The tire-terrain interaction is complex and tremendously important; it impacts the performance and safety of the vehicle and its occupants. Icy roads further enhance these complexities and adversely affect the handling of the vehicle. The analysis of the tire-ice contact focusing on individual aspects of tire construction and operation is imperative for tire industry's future. This study investigates the effects of the tread rubber compound on the drawbar pull performance of tires in contact with an ice layer near its melting point. A set of sixteen tires of eight different rubber compounds were considered. The tires were identical in design and tread patterns but have different tread rubber compounds. To study the effect of the tread rubber compound, all operational parameters were kept constant during the testing conducted on the Terramechanics Rig at the Terramechanics, Multibody, and Vehicle Systems laboratory. The tests led to conclusive evidence of the effect of the tread rubber compound on the drawbar performance (found to be most prominent in the linear region of the drawbar-slip curve) and on the resistive forces of free-rolling tires. Modeling of the tire-ice contact for estimation of temperature rise and water film height was performed using ATIIM 2.0. The performance of this in-house model was compared against three classical tire-ice friction models. A parametrization of the Magic Formula tire model was performed using experimental data and a Genetic Algorithm. The dependence of individual factors of the Magic Formula on the ambient temperature, tire age, and tread rubber compounds was investigated. / Master of Science / The interaction between the tire and icy road conditions in the context of the safety of the occupants of the vehicle is a demanding test of the skills of the driver. The expected maneuvers of a vehicle in response to the actions of the driver become heavily unpredictable depending on a variety of factors like the thickness of the ice, its temperature, ambient temperature, the conditions of the vehicle and the tire, etc. To overcome the issues that could arise, the development of winter tires got a boost, especially with siping and rubber compounding technology. This research focuses on the effects on the tire performance on ice due to the variation in the tread rubber compounds. The experimental accomplishment of the same was performed using the Terramechanics rig at the Terramechanics, Multibody, and Vehicle Systems (TMVS) laboratory. It was found that the effect of the rubber compound is most pronounced in the region where most vehicles operate under normal circumstances. An attempt was made to simulate the temperature rise in the contact patch and the water film that exists due to the localized melting of ice caused by frictional heating. Three classical friction models were used to compare the predictions against ATIIM 2.0, an in-house developed model. Using an optimization technique namely the Genetic Algorithm, efforts were made to understand the effects of the tread rubber compound, the ambient temperature, and the aging of the tire on the parameters of the Magic Formula model, an empirical model describing the performance of the tire.

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Tire parameters play a very important role in tire performance. Depending on the driving conditions for which a given tire is designed, its parameters must be chosen appropriately (e.g., the radius of the tire, the width of the tire, material properties of different sections). Among tire characteristics, the material properties of the rubber compounds have a vital role in tire behavior. Previous studies show that the material properties of the rubber are highly dependent on temperature. Thus, a comprehensive study on the effect of the material properties of the rubber on tire performance for different temperatures as well as different road conditions is required. In this study, a theoretical model has been developed for tire-ice interaction. The temperature changes obtained from the model are used to calculate the height of the water film created by the heat generated due to the friction force. Next, the viscous friction coefficient at the contact patch is obtained. By using the thermal balance equation at the contact patch, dry friction is obtained. Knowing the friction coefficients for the dry and wet regions, the equivalent friction coefficient is calculated. The model has been validated using experimental results for three similar tires with different rubber compounds properties. For the experimental part of this study, four tires have been selected for testing. Three of them have identical tire geometry and structure but different rubber tread compounds. Several tests were conducted for the chosen tires in three modes: free-rolling, braking, and traction. The tests were performed for two different normal loads (4 kN and 5.6 kN), two different inflation pressures (21 psi (144.8 kPa) and 28 psi (193 kPa)), and three tire temperatures levels (-10°C, -5°C, and -1 °C). The Terramechanics Rig at TMVS at Virginia Tech has been used for conducting the tests. The results from this study show the sensitivity of the magnitude of the tractive force with respect to parameters such as tire temperature, normal load, etc. The results also indicate that the tire with the lowest value of the Young modulus has the highest traction among all four tires used in this study. The model developed can be used to predict the temperature changes at the contact patch, the tire friction force, the areas of wet and dry regions, the height of the water film for different ice temperatures, different normal loads, etc. The results from this study coincide with the obtained results from the experiments. According to the data available, tire B with the smallest value of Young modulus and the smallest value of the specific heat parameter was shown to have the highest friction coefficient in both simulation and experiment. After validating the results using experimentally collected data, the model was used to perform a sensitivity analysis on the tire performance with respect to six material properties of the tread rubber: thermal conductivity, rubber density, Young's modulus, specific heat, roughness parameter of the rubber, and radii of spherical asperities of the rubber. The results from this study show the sensitivity of the magnitude of the friction coefficient to the rubber material properties. The friction coefficient has a direct relationship with the density of the rubber and has an inverse relationship with Young's modulus, specific heat, and roughness parameter. / Doctor of Philosophy / In order to decrease the number of deaths and injuries caused by driving on icy roads and increase the safety of the vehicle, it is important to improve the tire performance on ice. To this, understanding the effects of different tire and road parameters such as material properties of the rubber, loading condition, and temperature on the tire-ice performance is required. Tire parameters play a very important role in tire performance. Depending on the driving conditions for which a given tire is designed, its parameters must be chosen appropriately In this project, the effects of different tire and terrain parameters such as rubber material properties on tire performance on ice using an experimental and modeling approach have been studied. For the experimental part of this study, several tests were conducted for more than 30 tires with different material properties. The results of this study show what are the most important material properties of the rubber for designing a tire with the best performance on ice. For the modeling part of this study, a semi-analytical model was developed. The model was validated using collected experimental data and was used to predict the performance of the tire by having information about its material and physical properties. The developed model called ATIIM2.0 has several advantages. First, it is a unique model for a complete tire (not a rubber block) that can be used to predict the performance of the tire by using its material properties. In addition, this model can be connected to vehicle models to improve the performance of the vehicle in general. The model developed can be used to predict the temperature changes at the contact patch, the tire friction force, the areas of wet and dry regions, the height of the water film for different ice temperatures, different normal loads, etc. The results from this study coincide with the obtained results from the experiments.

Neste trabalho foi desenvolvida uma metodologia para análise qualitativa e quantitativa de compostos de borracha destinados à fabricação de revestimentos de embreagem. Estes compostos são formados por um grande número de componentes, dentre os quais utilizam, além da base elastomérica, uma resina como agente de processo, agentes de vulcanização e diversas cargas, cada qual com uma função específica. Os sistemas elastoméricos são caracterizados por propriedades que podem ser afetadas pela adição ou remoção de algum ingrediente e também pelas variações em suas concentrações. Os compostos de borracha são confeccionados por uma empresa terceira; portanto, o desenvolvimento de uma variedade de ferramentas analíticas para monitoramento desses sistemas se torna essencial, uma vez que esses compostos são a base da formulação de um revestimento de embreagem. Para o desenvolvimento desta metodologia foram utilizadas as técnicas TG/DTG, FTIR, GC e EDXRF. Como primeira etapa do trabalho foi realizado um estudo exploratório e um estudo de pré-formulação para a caracterização qualitativa de cada matéria-prima no composto de borracha. Na segunda etapa do trabalho foram preparadas diversas amostras com concentrações conhecidas do componente a ser quantificado. Para a quantificação das cargas grafite e negro de fumo utilizou-se diretamente a técnica de TG/DTG. Para a quantificação dos demais componentes foram elaboradas curvas analíticas de resposta (FTIR, GC e EDXRF) vs. variação da concentração. Observou-se a existência de uma correlação forte/perfeita e positiva entre as variáveis e as equações obtidas apresentaram boa adequação ao modelo de regressão linear. As curvas analíticas possibilitaram determinar as concentrações dos componentes de teores desconhecidos. / In this work it was developed a methodology for qualifying and quantifying rubber compounds destined for facings manufacture. These compounds are formed by a large number of components which use, beyond the elastomeric base, a resin that is used as a process agent, vulcanization agents and different fillers, each one with a specific function. The elastomeric systems are characterized by properties that could be affected by the addition or removal of some ingredient and also by variations in its concentration. The rubber compounds are produced by an outsourced company, so the development of a variety of analytical tools for monitoring these systems is essential, since these compounds are the basis of a facing formulation. For developing this methodology, TG/DTG, FTIR, GC and EDXRF were used as techniques. The first step was an exploratory and a pre-formulation study for a qualitative characterization of each raw material in rubber compound. In the second stage, several samples with known concentrations of the quantifying component were prepared. The quantification of graphite and carbon black was made directly by means of TG/DTG technique. For quantifying the other components, analytical curves of response (FTIR, GC and EDXRF) vs. variation of concentration were elaborated. A strong/perfect and positive correlation between the variables was observed and the equations presented good fit with the linear regression model. By means of the analytical curves it was possible to determine the amounts of unknown concentration rubber compounds.

Neste trabalho foi desenvolvida uma metodologia para análise qualitativa e quantitativa de compostos de borracha destinados à fabricação de revestimentos de embreagem. Estes compostos são formados por um grande número de componentes, dentre os quais utilizam, além da base elastomérica, uma resina como agente de processo, agentes de vulcanização e diversas cargas, cada qual com uma função específica. Os sistemas elastoméricos são caracterizados por propriedades que podem ser afetadas pela adição ou remoção de algum ingrediente e também pelas variações em suas concentrações. Os compostos de borracha são confeccionados por uma empresa terceira; portanto, o desenvolvimento de uma variedade de ferramentas analíticas para monitoramento desses sistemas se torna essencial, uma vez que esses compostos são a base da formulação de um revestimento de embreagem. Para o desenvolvimento desta metodologia foram utilizadas as técnicas TG/DTG, FTIR, GC e EDXRF. Como primeira etapa do trabalho foi realizado um estudo exploratório e um estudo de pré-formulação para a caracterização qualitativa de cada matéria-prima no composto de borracha. Na segunda etapa do trabalho foram preparadas diversas amostras com concentrações conhecidas do componente a ser quantificado. Para a quantificação das cargas grafite e negro de fumo utilizou-se diretamente a técnica de TG/DTG. Para a quantificação dos demais componentes foram elaboradas curvas analíticas de resposta (FTIR, GC e EDXRF) vs. variação da concentração. Observou-se a existência de uma correlação forte/perfeita e positiva entre as variáveis e as equações obtidas apresentaram boa adequação ao modelo de regressão linear. As curvas analíticas possibilitaram determinar as concentrações dos componentes de teores desconhecidos. / In this work it was developed a methodology for qualifying and quantifying rubber compounds destined for facings manufacture. These compounds are formed by a large number of components which use, beyond the elastomeric base, a resin that is used as a process agent, vulcanization agents and different fillers, each one with a specific function. The elastomeric systems are characterized by properties that could be affected by the addition or removal of some ingredient and also by variations in its concentration. The rubber compounds are produced by an outsourced company, so the development of a variety of analytical tools for monitoring these systems is essential, since these compounds are the basis of a facing formulation. For developing this methodology, TG/DTG, FTIR, GC and EDXRF were used as techniques. The first step was an exploratory and a pre-formulation study for a qualitative characterization of each raw material in rubber compound. In the second stage, several samples with known concentrations of the quantifying component were prepared. The quantification of graphite and carbon black was made directly by means of TG/DTG technique. For quantifying the other components, analytical curves of response (FTIR, GC and EDXRF) vs. variation of concentration were elaborated. A strong/perfect and positive correlation between the variables was observed and the equations presented good fit with the linear regression model. By means of the analytical curves it was possible to determine the amounts of unknown concentration rubber compounds.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-12-08T15:56:17Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Denilso Palaoro.pdf: 3446834 bytes, checksum: a842ffb16a48a459dc2b2e44efa303af (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-02-24 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / The rubber industry has a great role in many areas of the economy, such as automotive, construction, footwear industry, hospital, etc. Rubber products are produced from complex mixtures of different raw materials, both natural and synthetic sources. From an industrial point of view, a major difficulty is to develop a formulation that meets the particular product requirements. This work seeks to develop an experimental methodology to obtain EPDM rubber compounds, using experimental design techniques coupled with computer numerical optimisation. A fractional factorial design was used to design and analyse the experiments, with factors the contents of calcium carbonate, paraffinic oil and vulcanizing accelerator (weight fractions). Twelve properties were measured (six of original samples, three of heat aged and three of processing). Statistical analyses enabled to find regression models for the properties and the cost of the formulation. A computer program was developed to minimise the cost function, subject to constraints on the properties. The results showed that it was possible to obtain formulations of EPDM rubber compounds which can be optimized at low cost, for example, of US$ 2.02/kg a 2.43/kg, for use in hoses and pads at different manufacturing processes such as compression moulding, transfer or injection. Selected compositions were analysed by FTIR, SEM and TGA, regards to their chemical and structural characteristics. Compositions with low vulcanization accelerator contents contribute to form cross-links with many sulphur- sulphur between the carbon chains which can damage mechanical properties in the original cured and aged samples. Using higher accelerator content, better properties are achieved probably due to lower content of the same sulphur- sulphur cross-links between polymer chains. The EPDM compounds studied may be used in cushions, hoses products which can withstand to hot air environments. Thus, the present study provides an experimental and scientific technique that allows developing rubber compounds with increased efficiency and reliability in research and development, taking into account the cost of the material. / A indústria da borracha possui um papel significativo em diversas áreas da economia, tais como: indústria automobilística, construção civil, indústria calçadista, hospitalar, etc. Artefatos de borracha são produzidos a partir de misturas complexas de diversas matérias-primas, naturais e sintéticas. Na indústria, uma grande dificuldade é desenvolver uma formulação que atenda aos requisitos de determinado produto. Assim, neste trabalho, busca se desenvolver uma metodologia experimental para obtenção de compostos de borracha de etileno propileno dieno (EPDM), utilizando-se técnicas de planejamento de experimentos aliado com otimização numérica computacional. Foi utilizado um planejamento fatorial fracionado 33-1 (três níveis e três fatores), sendo os fatores: teor de carbonato de cálcio, teor de óleo parafínico e teor de acelerador de vulcanização. Foram medidas no total, 12 propriedades (seis originais, três envelhecidas e três propriedades de processos). A partir de estudos estatísticos foram obtidos modelos de regressão para as propriedades e para o custo da formulação. Um programa computacional foi desenvolvido para minimizar a função custo, sujeita às restrições nas propriedades. Os resultados mostraram que foi possível obter formulações de compostos de borracha EPDM otimizadas a um custo variando entre US$ 2,02/kg a 2,43/kg, para aplicação em mangueiras e coxins e em processos de transformação diversos, tais como, moldagem por compressão, transferência ou injeção. Composições selecionadas foram escolhidas e analisadas, por meio de FTIR, MEV e TGA, quanto às suas características químicas e estruturais. Composições com baixos teores de acelerador de vulcanização contribuem para formar ligações cruzadas com cerca de 4 a 7 átomos de enxofre entre as cadeias carbônicas, prejudicando as propriedades mecânicas no vulcanizado original e envelhecido. Com um teor maior de acelerador, melhores propriedades são obtidas, tendo em vista que um número elevado de ligações cruzadas com uma quantidade de átomos de enxofre inferior a 4 na cadeia são formadas. Os compostos de EPDM estudados podem ser utilizados em produtos de coxins e mangueiras para aplicações resistentes ao calor. Assim, esta pesquisa apresenta uma metodologia experimental, para a pesquisa e desenvolvimento de compostos de borracha EPDM, levando em conta o custo do material e restrições nas propriedades.

It is the tyre that ensures the interaction between a wheel and road surface and it is the the tyre which also acts as a primary cushioning. Its construction, features and condition highly influence driving properties of a car and thus passenger safety as well. In motorsports the tyre is a key part of the vehicle and therefore it is necessary to make use of its complete potential for reaching the best results. The aim of this thesis is a device construction suitable for tyre parameter and their characteristics measurement. The next task is to design a measuring system for tyre pressure and temperature monitoring. With using of these devices a few real-tyre measurements and subsequent result evaluation will be done. The output of the thesis is an overview of construction details, overview of selected tyre parameters, design and drawing documentation of multipurpose measuring device and the results of my measurements.