Rural schools experience difficulty in filling teaching positions at higher rates than non-rural schools. Recruiting and retaining teachers are critical in these districts; however, because the term “rural” is variable, a one-size-fits-all response is not possible. Rural communities tend to be geographically remote, have a low critical mass of students with distinct disabilities, and have relatively few resources to provide differential support for students. In this context, special educators may find themselves in circumstances where they operate as general specialists who are responsible for addressing a broad range of student needs without the support of other related service providers (e.g., school psychologists, curriculum specialists, school counselors, speech and language pathologists). Garwood’s article provides a catalyst to consider ecological system factors that affect burnout, attrition, and, as a consequence, instruction, particularly for students with disabilities. In this response, we view this issue from a perspective of rural schools, where the system contexts are varied and directly impact teacher-level variables, such as the ability to implement evidence-based practices (EBPs) with fidelity. Taking a developmental systems approach, we describe what makes rural settings unique and how these characteristics interact with the critical features of EBPs, as well as suggest how preparation and induction programs might better prepare and sustain teachers to adapt instruction to these rural contexts. We conclude with implications for practice and policy.

In the fall of 1996, the Computer Science Department at Virginia Tech initiated a joint project with a local school district, to determine how ready access to networked computing in the fifth grade would affect students. Called the PCs for Families (PCF) project, its goal was to learn what could be achieved if technology access, support, and curriculum integration could be eliminated as obstacles or constraints in the classroom and at home. A technology-rich classroom was created, with the classroom teacher trained in constructivist teaching practices and technology integration by a master teacher. Network computers were found on every desktop, with scanners, digital cameras, and other technologies scattered throughout the room. A computer was sent home with each child and teacher, and as much support as necessary was provided to all program participants, including parents. As part of this research, a yearlong field experiment was undertaken to explore the effects of the PCF intervention on the third cohort of students participating in the project. Macroergonomics served as the theoretical framework for the experiment, which focused on the in-depth, systematic assessment of those quantitative changes that resulted from exposure to the PCF fifth-grade network classroom. Students participating in the field research were randomly selected from the larger pool of students eligible for the PCF project at the school. Selected students were randomly assigned to either to the PCF fifth-grade classroom or the standard fifth-grade classroom, which served as a control group. To first-time visitors walking into the PCF network classroom, the classroom bore little resemblance to its more traditional counterparts. However, the functioning of the PCF classroom was in many ways indistinguishable from that of its traditional counterparts. The yearly average for computer use in the PCF classroom was 4.275 hours, with computer use in the PCF classroom exceeding the three hours of computer laboratory time allotted to the control class only during the last 12 weeks of school. When used, the technology functioned as an electronic replacement for materials commonly found in traditional settings. Observers reported the pedagogy remained steadfastly teacher-centered and didactic. Despite limited utilization of the computer during classroom hours, analysis of individual, academic measures indicated PCF students made significantly greater gains than control students only on standardized writing tests. PCF students also performed significantly better than control students on measures related to technology skills. Boys in the PCF classroom also made greater improvements in their attitudes towards school than boys in the control classroom. At home, PCF students were found to interact with computer technology more often than their control counterparts. Despite lower overall home use, control students reported spending more time playing computer games than PCF students. Correlational analyses indicated significant linear relationships between changes in student performance, student entry characteristics, and home computer use variables. Student previous achievement was by far the strongest predictor of student SOL test performance, with computer use only linked to student standardized test performance on the writing and mathematics sections. As the number of email messages sent by the student increased, their writing performance increased with email usage accounting for almost ten percent of the total variance in the writing score. The only other computer use measure significantly associated with test performance was student self-reports of computer use, which accounted for less than four percent of the total variance in mathematics test performance. Computer use was associated more strongly with changes in student motivation. Student self-reports of home computer use accounted for fully 30 percent of the variance in changes on the school motivation survey. Analyses of data from the PCF proxy server suggest that student web browsing overshadows other home Internet activities, with email taking precedence over chat. Further, unlike chat or email, family web usage was sustained long after students left the PCF classroom. Over 68 percent of family web usage each week was attributable to student, not family, characteristics suggesting students play a large role in determining family usage. Academic information finding provides a plausible explanation for these results, with family web usage declining somewhat during summer months when students were not in school. Stability of both web and email use was relatively high among students. In keeping with critical mass theory, student email use increased when other students used email. However, social variables were not found to have a significant effect on web usage. Girls were found to make greater use of email than boys, with this research suggesting highly visual students used email more often. The field research also found a significant increase in student self-reports of musculoskeletal problems among the PCF students. A year-end examination of workstation fit found seat and monitor heights an average of two inches higher than the corresponding student dimensions. A participatory design study was used to elicit conceptions of computer workstations from PCF students, teachers, and parents. Children were interested in gaining greater control over the workstation, both in terms of individual technology and adjustability of furniture. Parents, however, focused on improving the richness of an individual student's workspace and de-emphasized collaborative work. Teacher opinions diverged more than other groups with designs strongly influenced by pedagogic beliefs. Results from the field study provide evidence that macroergonomic methodologies for analysis and design of work systems are extensible to classroom systems, and provide a systematic framework for examining issues related to the introduction of classroom computing technology. A critical element of any successful effort to integrate technology into the curriculum is access to adequate classroom technology and support; however, as this research illustrates, they are not sufficient to ensure successful integration. This research demonstrates other forces are at work, and in keeping with macroergonomic theory, key to the success of such an effort is the "fit" between the new technology and the characteristics of the classroom system, especially those of the teacher who effectively functions as the gatekeeper for the technology. / Ph. D.

The growing diversity of school populations around the world means that for many learners the language of learning in mainstream classrooms is not their first language. The researcher would submit that content-based second language learning in a context such as a Science classroom is considered advantageous as it enables the learner to manipulate a target language such as English in a way which is meaningful. However, Science learners who have yet to achieve communicative competence in English are disadvantaged when it comes to developing a deep understanding of scientific concepts. Many mainstream Science educators have concerns about this significant group of learners who can be left on the periphery of the class to cope as best as they can. Very often educators aim to meet the needs of English Second Language (ESL) learners without any specific knowledge of the strategies which would enhance learning and ensure that learning environments encourage participation and interaction. The learners themselves have not only to deal with language and sociocultural issues but must face the cognitive demands of Science including negotiating its specialized language. The aim of this study was to investigate how the use of English as a language of learning and teaching Science in rural secondary schools in the Vlakfontein Circuit of the Limpopo Capricorn District, influenced the ability of Grade 8 students to learn Science. The focus was on the Grade 8 classes since they are at the threshold of their educational pursuit. The study had two main purposes. The first goal was to describe the current situation with respect to rural secondary school learners and their educators in selected learning environments in Vlakfontein Circuit. The second goal was to bring about improvement in the learners’ situations by employing specifically designed interventions. The study had three focal areas: the language; the teaching and learning environment; and the ESL learner. The investigation was conducted in disadvantaged rural secondary schools in the Vlakfontein Circuit in the Limpopo province. Observations of the Science classes revealed that, even for the learners with very limited English language proficiency there was little ESL specialist support available. The data analyzed was collected using a variety of data collection tools. The main data generation tools were observation, semi-structured interviews and questionnaires. The analysis revealed that learners were lacking in Science register (terminology). This study also found out that non-technical language used in Science lessons affected the learners’ understanding much more than the educators were aware. Educators’ attitudes and beliefs strongly influenced the interaction and participation of ESL learners in Science classrooms. The study also revealed that developing language skills prevented ESL learners from asking questions and answering questions in class and academic progress in Science was impeded by limited opportunities for ESL learners to clarify their understanding. Further, the investigation established that achievement in Science and in education overall was affected by assessment instruments which were infused with specific linguistic or cultural knowledge. The study arrived at a conclusion that the needs of the research students could not be met by a programme based on the traditional format of ESP teaching. Hence, the researcher has recommended a Science Based English Programme (SBEP) which encapsulates several adjustments in orientation methods and materials to meet the ESL learners’ needs. This kind of learning-centred arrangement will allow not only efficiency of SBEP instruction but also allow the kinds of activities that may not be possible in groups with a wide dispersion of interests. However, the extent to which the research learners encountered difficulties with vocabulary suggests that there is a need to investigate more effective methods of dealing with this issue. Needed research could also be directed into the development of a Science glossary with appropriate language levels for ESL learners. This could include technical scientific terms with examples of how terms can be used.From the outcome of the interviews with educators, it is evident that further research is needed concerning the educators’ English proficiency and Science competence in ESL situations. / Teacher Education / D. Ed. (Didactics)

The aim of this study was to investigate the causes and consequences of learner aggression in rural secondary schools in the Empangeni District of KwaZulu-Natal. The study also sought to establish the management strategies required to manage learner aggression in rural secondary schools. An in-depth literature study was conducted in this regard. A qualitative research design and methodology was adopted to investigate the phenomenon through an interview process with participants from five rural secondary schools. This study found that the causes of learner aggression were rooted in the family, the environment and the school. It was further established that the consequences of learner aggression were so serious that it resulted in victims experiencing intense fear, anxiety, tension, depression and ill-health. Furthermore, the findings of the empirical investigation concurred, to a large extent, with the findings of the literature study. Based on these findings, recommendations were made regarding the management of learner aggression in rural secondary schools. / Educational Leadership and Management / M. Ed. (Education Management)

The study focuses on management strategies of the highly impoverished secondary schools of the Mount Fletcher District in the Eastern Cape. Challenges facing the impoverished learners and managerial experiences of principals of these schools have been discussed in the study. A literature review provided a conceptual framework and covered definitions of poverty, school management strategies, leadership styles and qualities required for a successful principal heading a secondary school with impoverished learners. An empirical investigation using a qualitative approach was conducted and data gathered by means of interviews with principals, Life Orientation teachers and parents. Finally a synopsis of findings and recommendations were made to assist the policy makers, Departmental officials, principals, teachers and parents in proper management of secondary schools in the poor rural communities. / Educational Leadership and Management / M. Ed. (Education Management)

This study is based on a need for community involvement in farm schools to enhance effective teaching and efficient learning. The rationale behind it was to determine the current state of community involvement in farm schools in the Pietermaritzburg area, with a view to determining the extent to which the current community i nvolvement, namely, the active participation of parents, teachers, the farmer, the church, the state and the private sector could be extended on a large scale. The study revealed that the community involvement dimension of schooling is central to the teaching profession. If neglected, no effective teaching and efficient learning can materialise. The role of the farm school principal in the realisation of this goal is indispensable. The empirical survey and literature revealed that farm school principals can address the serious shortcoming concerning the participation of community members in the affairs of farm schools. / Educational Studies / M. Ed. (Comparative Education)

The purpose of the study was to investigate teachers’ perceptions of parental involvement in children’s education in the rural Mawa and Molototsi circuits in the Mopani district, Limpopo Province. Three-hundred-and-thirty (330) teachers participated in this research survey. The results indicated that the common perception amongst teachers was that parental involvement had positive benefits for both learner performance and social behaviour. The study also revealed that schools used involvement initiatives and strategies to a lesser extent than expected. Primary schools reported higher rates of parental involvement than secondary schools, which suggested that parents of primary school children were likelier to involve themselves in school governance than those of secondary school children. The extent to which the school used media to promote parental involvement was found to be small and moderate. The respondents also perceived certain social and economic barriers as moderate to large impediments to parental involvement. / Educational Leadership and Management / M. Ed. (Education Management)

Full-service/inclusive schools are new institutions in South Africa which have been established in terms of the Education White Paper 6 (Department of Education, 2001:22-23) as pilot schools for the rolling out of the Inclusion policy in South Africa. The purpose of this study was to explore the teachers‟ challenges in identifying learners who experience barriers to learning in a rural Full-Service School in KwaZulu-Natal. Teachers in such schools are expected to have skills and knowledge to identify learners and provide support. Most teachers in Full-Service Schools possess qualifications to teach in mainstream schools and depend on the Departmental workshops for the skills needed to identify learners and provide support. The identification of such learners was selected because it is the first step in the process of providing support to learners. Teachers should therefore have skills and knowledge of identifying learners in order to minimise bias, non-identification, over-identification as well as mis-identification. This qualitative study employed a case study design to examine teachers‟ challenges in identifying learners. Six teachers were selected for interviews and the SIAS documents were studied to confirm the findings from interviews. Inductive methods were used to analyse the data. Recommendations for future research studies were made. / Inclusive Education / M. Ed. (Inclusive Education)

Thesis (MEd)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / Includes bibliography / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Prior to 1994, the school principal in conjunction with the Department of Education used to be responsible for the control and management of school finances. With the establishment of the South African Schools Act 84 of 1996, however, the liability in respect of finance has changed dramatically as self-management took effect in schools. With the Minister of Education’s announcement of no-fee schools in poor communities (quintiles 1–3) in 2006, parents’ obligation to pay school fees fell away. Together with the aforementioned policy and decentralisation, through which power, control and management have shifted from the national to the local level, schools have started to bear a heavier financial burden as well. However, principals and governing body members have often not been trained to cope with this. The purpose of this study was to determine the impact of the no-fees policy on the financial control and management of rural schools in the West Coast-Winelands education district (circuits 1, 2 and 3). The data for the research were firstly gathered by means of a literature review, after which an exploratory study was conducted in 20 rural no-fee schools in the abovementioned education district by way of questionnaires. The school principals and chairpersons of school governing bodies each received a questionnaire. They were afforded two weeks to complete it. The researcher personally analysed the data, based on which certain findings and recommendations are made at the end of the study. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Voor 1994 was die skoolhoof in samewerking met die Departement verantwoordelik vir die beheer en bestuur van skoolfinansies. Met die instelling van die Suid-Afrikaanse Skolewet 84 van 1996 het die aanspreeklikheid ten opsigte van finansies egter drasties verander, deurdat selfbestuur by skole in werking gestel is. Met die Minister van Onderwys se aankondiging in 2006 van geenskoolfondsskole in arm gemeenskappe (kwintiel 1–3), het ouers se verpligting om skoolgeld te betaal verval. Tesame met voormelde beleid en desentralisasie, waardeur mag, bestuur en beheer vanaf nasionale na plaaslike vlak verskuif is, het skole nou ʼn groter finansiёle las begin dra. Tog is skoolhoofde en beheerliggaamlede dikwels nie opgelei om hierdie finansiёle las te dra nie. Die doel van hierdie studie was om die invloed van die geenskoolfondsbeleid op die finansiёle beheer en bestuur van landelike skole in die Weskus-Wynland-onderwysdistrik (kring 1, 2 en 3) te bepaal. Die data vir die navorsing is eerstens by wyse van ʼn literatuuroorsig ingesamel, waarna ʼn ondersoekende studie deur middel van vraelyste by 20 landelike geenskoolfondsskole in bogenoemde onderwysdistrik onderneem is. Skoolhoofde en beheerliggaamvoorsitters van die skole het elk ʼn vraelys ontvang. Hulle is twee weke gegun om die vraelyste te voltooi. Die navorser het persoonlik die data ontleed, op grond waarvan bepaalde bevindings en aanbevelings aan die einde van die studie gedoen word.

The study explores Mathematics educators’ use of students’ out-of-school experiences in the teaching of Transformation Geometry. This thesis focuses on an analysis of the extent to which students’ out-of-school experiences are reflected in the actual teaching, textbook tasks and national examination items set and other resources used. Teachers’ teaching practices are expected to support students’ learning of concepts in mathematics. Freudenthal (1991) argues that students develop their mathematical understanding by working from contexts that make sense to them, contexts that are grounded in realistic settings. ZIMSEC Examiners Reports (2010; 2011) reveal a low student performance in the topic of Transformation Geometry in Zimbabwe, yet, the topic has a close relationship with the environment in which students live (Purpura, Baroody & Lonigan, 2013). Thus, the main purpose of the study is to explore Mathematics teachers’ use of students’ out-of-school experiences in the teaching of Transformation Geometry at secondary school level. The investigation encompassed; (a) teacher perceptions about transformation geometry concepts that have a close link with students’ out-of-school experiences, (b) how teachers are teaching transformation geometry in Zimbabwe’s rural secondary schools, (c) the extent to which students’ out-of-school experiences are incorporated in Transformation Geometry tasks, and (d) the extent to which transformation geometry, as reflected in the official textbooks and suggested teaching models, is linked to students’ out-of-school experiences. Consistent with the interpretive qualitative research paradigm the transcendental phenomenology was used as the research design. Semi-structured interviews, Lesson observations, document analysis and a test were used as data gathering instruments. Data analysis, mainly for qualitative data, involved coding and categorising emerging themes from the different data sources. The key epistemological assumption was derived from the notion that knowing reality is through understanding the experiences of others found in a phenomenon of interest (Yuksel & Yildirim, 2015). In this study, the phenomenon of interest was the teaching of Transformation Geometry in rural secondary schools. In the same light, it meant observing teachers teaching the topic of Transformation Geometry, listening to their perceptions about the topic during interviews, and considering how they plan for their teaching as well as how students are assessed in transformation geometry. The research site included 3 selected rural secondary schools; one Mission boarding high school, a Council run secondary school and a Government rural day secondary school. Purposive sampling technique was used carefully to come up with 3 different types of schools in a typical rural Zimbabwe. Purposive sampling technique was also used to choose the teacher participants, whereas learners who sat for the test were randomly selected from the ordinary level classes. The main criterion for including teacher participants was if they were currently teaching an Ordinary Level Mathematics class and had gained more experience in teaching Transformation Geometry. In total, six teachers and forty-five students were selected to participate in the study. Results from the study reveal that some teachers have limited knowledge on transformation geometry concepts embedded in students’ out-of-school experience. Using Freudenthal’s (1968) RME Model to judge their effectiveness in teaching, the implication is teaching and learning would fail to utilise contexts familiar with the students and hence can hardly promote mastery of transformation geometry concepts. Data results also reveal some disconnect between teaching practices as espoused in curriculum documents and actual teaching practice. Although policy stipulates that concepts must be developed starting from concrete situations and moving to the abstract concepts, teachers seem to prefer starting with the formal Mathematics, giving students definitions and procedures for carrying out the different geometric transformations. On the other hand, tasks in Transformation Geometry both at school level and the national examinations focus on testing learner’s ability to define and use procedures for performing specific transformations at the expense of testing for real understanding of concepts. In view of these findings the study recommends the revision of the school Mathematics curriculum emphasising pre-service programmes for teacher professional knowledge to be built on features of contemporary learning theory, such as RME theory. Such as a revision can include the need to plan instruction so that students build models and representations rather than apply already developed ones. / Curriculum and Instructional Studies / D. Ed. (Curriculum Studies)