In rural inland, south-eastern Australia, allergy to the fungus Alternaria is prevalent and an important risk factor for asthma. The aim of the thesis was to investigate the distribution and factors influencing allergens of Alternaria in the air. As airborne allergenic spores were thought to arise from harvesting of nearby crops, two towns with different agricultural practices were studied. Moree has two crop harvesting periods in summer and autumn whilst Wagga Wagga has one harvesting period in summer. Over two years, air was sampled daily in Wagga Wagga and Moree using Burkard traps. The reliability of measurements from a single site to represent the distribution of airborne concentrations of spores across each town was examined using data from three traps simultaneously, sited 2.0 to 4.9 km apart, over four weeks. Substantial intra-class correlation coefficients (ICC) were observed between the three sampling sites across both towns (ICC=0.52, 95% CI 0.30-0.71 to 0.76, 95% CI 0.61-0.87) when counts of Alternaria spores were relatively high. The correlation was poor when counts were low. Of more than 365 trap tapes examined, the two microscopic traverses strongly correlated for counts of Alternaria spores (ICC=0.95, 95% CI 0.94-0.96). Alternaria was detected in both towns throughout the two year period with peaks in spore concentrations reflecting the season of crop harvesting in each region. Individual exposure to spores was examined. Thirty three subjects (adults and children from nine families) wore nasal air samplers and personal air samplers both inside and outside their homes. The effects of activity, location, age on the inhalation of Alternaria spores and variation between individuals in the same environment were determined. Every subject inhaled Alternaria spores. Personal exposure to Alternaria in the home environment varied substantially between subjects. Levels of fungal spores inhaled were higher during periods of activity than during rest, and higher while subjects were outdoors than indoors. During outdoor activity, the number of Alternaria spores inhaled ranged from 4 to 794 (median 11) spores/hr. Sources of airborne spores was investigated by sampling air above wheat and cotton crops near the towns during harvesting and non-harvesting periods, in a grain and cotton seed storage shed, and a cotton gin. Substantially higher concentrations were detected above crops during harvesting periods compared to non-harvesting periods. Peaks were associated with harvesting and other activities where plants were manipulated. By regression analysis spore concentrations in both towns were modelled against those detected above crops and with weather variables. Only one crop sampling period (cotton harvest) independently correlated with concentrations in town. Analysis combining all data showed concentrations of spores above crops correlated with spore concentrations in the town when lagged by one day. Variables of rainfall and maximum temperature influenced concentrations in both towns, and wind direction in Wagga Wagga alone. Parents of asthmatic children were asked by questionnaire in which locations symptoms were provoked. Asthma was reported to be exacerbated at grain farms and with disturbance of local vegetation in town and home gardens. Nasal sampling confirmed that activities that disturbed dust or vegetation increased the inhalation of spores. The factors that release allergen from spores were determined in a modified Halogen immunoassay. Approximately 60% of spores released allergen, and the proportion was influenced by isolate, nutrient availability, viability, and not influenced by sunlight or culture age up to 21 days. Germinating the spores significantly increased the proportion that released total allergen and Alt a 1 (p<0.0001). Alt a 1 appears to be a minor contributor to the total allergen released from spores except when spores have germinated. Conclusions: People living in inland rural regions of Australia are exposed to substantial quantities of allergenic spores of Alternaria. Exposure is a highly personal event and is largely determined by disturbance of local vegetation releasing spores such as from nearby crops by wind, harvesting, slashing, transport and processing of produce, and from within town and home gardens. Most spores inhaled are likely to be allergenic, with potency potentially increasing with viability.

This dissertation explores determinants and perceptions to participation in beekeeping by households’ as well as its contribution to household income. This is in a context that smallholder farmers’ participation is reported to be very low, despite several claimed benefits of beekeeping. Moreover, despite receiving substantial endorsements as a resilient climate-smart rural livelihood, off-farm, forest, non-timber diversification strategy; the uptake of beekeeping by smallholder farmers in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa still remains very low. Against this background, this study used cross-sectional survey data to gauge smallholder farmers’ perceptions and factors that influence their participation in beekeeping using a binary regression model; further, it measured the contribution of beekeeping to rural household income using a linear regression model. Descriptive statistics revealed that majority of the people from the study area have positive perceptions regarding beekeeping. Regression estimates further indicate that beekeeping is mostly conditioned by shared perceptions, institutional and socio-economic factors that are worth targeting to promote the uptake of beekeeping as a livelihood. Public policies that influence the institutional framework (extension, credit and market) in favour of beekeeping are more likely to promote participation in beekeeping activities. Also, more research on the documentation and benefits of beekeeping supported by investments targeting educational campaigns towards promoting positive attitudes and dispelling fears and myths surrounding beekeeping as an enterprise, will also promote the participation of smallholder farmers in beekeeping. Regression estimates for determinants of household income revealed a significant positive contribution of beekeeping to household income, education, gender and age. Promotion of beekeeping may therefore address household income that is worth targeting to address rural poverty. The study therefore concludes that to fully unlock the income potential of beekeeping for smallholder farmers, development agencies need to address several negative perceptions and institutional factors that affect beekeeping participation, while more research is required to quantify the claimed benefits of beekeeping, given their positive potential to promote farmers’ interests in beekeeping.

Thesis (DTech (Education))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2008. / Multi-grade teaching is a worldwide phenomenon. Meeting the basic needs of rural people in developing countries is a major challenge to achieve the Millennium Development Goals of the Education for All programmes. Situation analyses carried out by Little (1995, 2001, 2003, 2004 and 2005), Juvane (2005), Taylor and Mulhalll (1997) and Atchoarena and Gasperini (2003) indicate that multi-grade schools are common in impoverished, low population settlements such as remote areas and small villages. Researchers like Berry (2001), Pratt (1986) and Bryk (1994) report evidence that multi-grade schools can be positive places for learners and teachers. Observations done by Rao (2004), McGinn (1996) and McEwan and Benveniste (2001) show that successful models of multi-grade teaching already exist. Examples of addressing the isolation of multi-grade settings are found in Finland and Greece, where ICT is utilized to address this challenge. The "active" pedagogy which researchers like Little (1995, 2003 and 2005), Juvane (2005), Miller (1999) and McEwan and Benveniste (2001) promote for multigrade schools expects teachers to guide activities to be completed, and allows for free activities, which require application of the knowledge gained. It also involves creative exploration and application of regional-specific knowledge and relies upon learners to acquire and construct knowledge for themselves, guided by the teacher. Atchoarena and Gasperini (2005:6) believe in an integrated learning concept which bases its focus on the notion that effective learning is not limited to the classroom, but that, through use of community resources the curricula can "come alive."The "active" pedagogy and the expected participation of communities in the teaching and learning process should not only be for the benefit of the multi-grade class but should also be applicable to teaching and learning in mono-grade classes. This contributes to Bingham's (1995:6) view that a natural community of learners is inclusive of experiences outside school boundaries in the larger world. According to the Ministerial Committee on Rural Education (2005:12), South Africa's first ten years of democracy, are after 1994, characterized by an overwhelming commitment to equality, to treat everyone in the same way no matter what his or her differences are. Hence, the management and funding of rural schools are similar to the principles and formulas of those of urban schools. So too, curriculum and pedagogies of rural schooling are planned to be the same as those found in rural settings. Emerging Voices (2205:12) and Joubert (2005:3) agree that rural education has to provide the means to enable generations to break out of the recurring cycle of unskilled labour and resultant poverty. State education must deliver learners who are able to read, write and are numerate and furthermore deliver trained teachers for the multigrade Irural school system. In the literacy reviewed, it is clear that curricula, learning materials, teacher education and assessment are necessary components of an integrated strategy for learning and teaching in multi-grade settings. Surrounding these strategies is the need for national policies for curriculums, materials, teacher education and assessment that recognize, legitimate and support learners and teachers in multi-grade settings. The researcher identified two interventions, which addressed the above mentioned multi-grade phenomenon in South Africa, namely the Kgatelopele project of the Limpopo Education Department launched in 2000 and the Multi-grade Rural School Intervention (MGRSI) in the Western Cape Province launched in 2001. Both these interventions focused on the needs of multi-grade schools, and ways to address those needs. The MGRSI was structured according to a logic model, which provided the objectives of the intervention and the strategy, which it intended to follow in order to reach the stated outcomes. This study provided the opportunity to do a case study, which revealed the successes and the challenges of the intervention implemented from 2001 to 2006.

M.A. (Development Studies) / This study examines water service provision models in KwaZulu-Natal and asks to what extent the intention behind the implementation of a specific model of water service provision correlates with residents’ experiences of the service delivery model that is implemented within their township? Using a case study method this question was examined in two poor communities in the KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa that were characterised by different models of water service delivery. In the first case, namely Kwadukuza, municipal service provision is the operating model, whilst in the second case, Etete, a Public-Private Partnership governs water service delivery. In examining the different models of water service delivery in the two communities and how they are perceived and experienced by stakeholders, this research primarily expands on existing literature on water service provision within South Africa. It furthermore contributes to broader discussions on decentralisation and citizen participation, whilst building on scholarly debates on water privatisation and partnerships in the context of townships in South Africa. The study begins with a consideration of relevant literature, examining the growing impetus of decentralisation globally, as well as the concurrent emergence of neoliberal thinking and New Public Management strategies. Thereafter, debates on water privatisation are explored, before moving on to a consideration of the policy and practice of water provision in the South African context. At this juncture, the study draws on in-depth interviews as it considers the two models of water service provision within the Ilembe District Municipality – the factors that influenced their implementation and, thereafter, the relationships between and experiences of stakeholders (both implementers and beneficiaries alike) of the service delivery model that operates within their municipality. The study submits that the proposed benefits of decentralisation in the South African context are questionable, specifically as they relate to the delivery of services to the poorest of the poor. It is argued that this is owing considerably to inadequacies at the level of local government. In this respect, it is suggested that existing participatory mechanisms are falling short of the mark. In light of this, the study advances the manifold advantages of multiple stakeholders and partnership arrangements for service delivery models in the South African context. At its core, the study highlights residents’ experiences of water service delivery into their townships in an attempt to measure these against other reported experiences.

PhDRDV / Institute for Rural Development / Potable water supply is a fundamental human right and protected by international conventions and national laws. Access to it and having in place an appropriate water supply system remain the building blocks to improving and maintaining the welfare of any community for it to enjoy a healthy and productive life. The supply of potable water, especially in Africa's rural areas, however, remains a challenge. The demand for a system to provide sustainable water supply has been on the increase due to population growth and the climate change phenomenon. Vhembe District Municipality (VDM), as the responsible authority for water supply in sections of the Limpopo Province, faces many challenges, including - aging water supply infrastructure, lack of capacity of officials, and lack of funds for maintenance; these often lead to a breakdown of the supply system. This challenge results, for example, in increased health hazards that often cause tension between the District and the residents. The study’s main objective was to investigate the water supply system in Vhembe so as to suggest an effective intervention strategy for potable rural water supply system to improve the supply in the Vhembe District Municipality of the Limpopo Province. The specific objectives were - to determine the current potable water supply sources in rural communities of the VDM, examine the system’s ability to meet the needs of the rural communities in VDM and to identify the challenges and coping strategies used to meet potable water supply in VDM. A mixed-method, of both qualitative and quantitative research designs and techniques, was adopted and focus group discussions and in-depth interviews were used to gather data. From the four local municipalities of VDM, 14 wards were purposively selected through proportional representation of 448 households, which were randomly selected. Three municipal officials responsible for the water supply system in the VDM were selected through census. Key-informant discussions were held with councillors from the 14 wards, with focus group discussions used to engage the 448 households, and traditional leaders. Thematic content analysis was used to identify common themes, ideas, and patterns of meaning that came up frequently from qualitative data. The IBM Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS) version 25 was used to analyse data using descriptive statistics, one way ANOVA and Chi-Square test.The results revealed that in Vhembe District Municipality, the primary sources of water were boreholes (45.3%) followed by piped water from the dams (35.3%). The majority of the households (53.6%) obtain water from boreholes once per week, with 4% resorting to obtaining water from rivers, 5.4% obtained water from fountains and 10% obtained their water from Municipality water tankers (truck tankers). These results indicate that the District continues to face challeges in its efforts to fulfill its mandate as the responsible authority for water supply, in the rural communities due to lack of a sustainable system to supply the required minimum water needs for households. The study recommended that all stakeholders should join hands to invest in a system that has more water supply options to sustainably meet the needs of the growing population. The system should have management ii structures relevant for villages, as critical pillars to assist - with the management system, address minor maintenance requirements, and monitor and report any water supply system-related issues. It was also suggested that rural communities be encouraged to pay for water supply services, for the system's sustainability and that the system in VDM would be improved when stakeholders (communities, government, and NGOs) come together. / NRF

Thesis (M.Dev.) --University of Limpopo, 2015 / The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of gender discrimination in water services provision on women empowerment in GaPila Village, located in Limpopo Province. Gender discrimination remains a major challenge both in the labour market and within households. The allocation of resources within households is still much gendered due to unequal gender relations in most rural areas. Men are allocated most resources within households and have many benefits than women. Such also manifest to children. Despite, women being major beneficiaries of the delivery of water services, they are discriminated against as they are not involved with the processes that precede the provision of such services. The study used both quantitative and qualitative research approach to establish the effects of gender discrimination in the provision of water services on women empowerment. The findings of the study illustrated that culture and tradition are the key to the inadequacy of women’s access to and control over management of water services. Cultural practices within communities either ignore female participation in water services management. Their participation is obstructed by lack of time, level of education, low self-esteem and flexibility due to substantial workload and numerous household responsibilities. The study also showed that according to local cultural beliefs, the status of women whether high or low, does not determine the amount of work that must be done by her at home, because irrespective of her status or career placement, her primary assignment is to care for the family/home. The study further revealed that women in the GaPila Village are allowed access to economic opportunities and participation roles during community meetings. Also, women are allowed to occupy positions such as chairperson, secretary and treasurer; however, due to culture and tradition, low self-esteem and lack of support from men, women do not take advantage of such opportunities to occupy these positions of authority in water services. Therefore, the study concluded that, as woman’s contributions regarding water services provision remains inconsequential because they are excluded from decision making processes that affect their level of living and prospects of empowerment. From a water services provision perspective, this study affirms the theoretical principle that discrimination against women disempowers them. Women are the beneficiaries of water services because most of their duties require water. As such, it is important for women to actively participate and to be involved in the management committee relating to water services and provision.

Thesis ( M. Sc.((Agricultural Economics)) -- University of Limpopo, 2017. / Wildlife farming has become an important land use alternative, especially in most developing countries where there is an abundance of wildlife resources. In South Africa, integrated wildlife/livestock was mostly practiced by commercial farmers on a privately owned land but in recent years, potential for income generation in the industry has grown. Smallholder farmers are increasingly being assisted to explore practicing integrated wildlife/livestock on communal land after receiving land through restitution programme. The aim of the study was to examine costs and benefits associated with integrating livestock with wildlife in a smallholder agricultural context. Structured questionnaires were used to collect data from 71 respondents situated in Ba-Phalaborwa Municipality selected using multistage random sampling technique. Cost-benefit approach and weighted decision matrix were used for economic analysis and also to identify potential trade-offs. Furthermore, the study used descriptive statistical analysis to identify opportunities and challenges faced by farmers. Some of the livestock costs identified include feeds, vaccines and labour costs. Benefits of wildlife include income from trophy hunting and selling meat from wild animals. Cost-Benefit Ratio (CBR) as a tool of cost benefit analysis techniques, was used in order get 0.67 in livestock farming, this shows that the project may not be sustainable whereas that of wildlife farming was 1.13 which indicate that the project will yield positive outcome for community involved. There are trade-offs that farmers will have to consider when shifting towards integrated wildlife/livestock such as reduced livestock benefits and increased wildlife benefits. Livestock diseases, stock theft and others are the identified challenges associated with integrated wildlife/livestock. Descriptive results indicated that 40% of livestock farmers mentioned that they are strongly affected by stock theft and disease transmission. The identified opportunities of integrated wildlife/livestock were business and job creation for rural households. Given the findings, the study therefore, recommends that government and private sector should assist farmers with training in wildlife farming so that they can be competitive in commercial wildlife farming. Funds should be made available for setting up infrastructure suited for wildlife land uses. / Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (DAFF)

Thesis (M.Sc. (Physiology)) -- University of Limpopo, 2019 / Background Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is an increasing challenge globally, and is estimated to affect 439 million adults by 2030. This estimate is linked to an unhealthy lifestyle with characteristics such as low physical activity (PA) and high plasma glucose levels (PGLs). Studies associating PA with insulin resistance and diabetes among adults and adolescents have been conducted widely in developed countries. Such studies are scanty among rural populations, especially in Africa. Assessment of the burden of diabetes and associated lifestyle risk factors in developing countries is essential in order to encourage appropriate intervention strategies to counter the increasing prevalence. Aim and objectives The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between PA and T2DM among rural young adults aged 22 to 30 years in Ellisras area in Limpopo Province, South Africa Methods A total of 713 young adults (349 males and 364 females) who have been part of the Ellisras Longitudinal Study participated in the current study. Physical activity data was collected using a validated questionnaire. After an overnight fast, participants provided fasting venous blood samples for determination of plasma glucose and insulin. Insulin resistance was estimated using the homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance. Anthropometric measurements (waist circumference and height) were performed using standard procedures. Linear and logistic regressions were used to assess the relationship between PA, pre-diabetes, insulin resistance and T2DM; and the odds of having T2DM with low PA levels. Results The prevalence of physical inactivity was 67.3 and 71.0% for males and females, respectively. That of pre-diabetes was between 45.7% and 50.2%. The prevalence of diabetes was 9.6% for males and 10.1% for females while for insulin resistance was 22.9% for males and 29.3% for females. Linear regression found a significant relationship (p<0.05) between physical activity and blood glucose (ß =5.715; 95% CI 4.545; 6.885), waist circumference (ß = 37.572; 95% CI 25.970; 49.174) and waist-toheight ratio (ß = 0.192; 95% CI 0.087; 0.296). Logistic regression found a significant (p<0.05) relationship between low physical activity and T2DM (Odds ratio = 2.890; 95% CI 1.715; 4.870) and insulin resistance (Odds ratio = 1.819; 95% CI 1.266; 2.614). Conclusion Physical activity is low in this population, and is independently associated with T2DM and insulin resistance. KEY WORDS Type 2 diabetes mellitus; pre-diabetes; insulin resistance; physical activity; young adults; rural South African population. / Vrije University, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, and the University of Limpopo

The purpose of this study was to explore the career decision making of grade 12 learners at a rural high school in Limpopo. The world of work has changed and there is a need for young people entering this world of work to be well matched and have the necessary skills to cope with the challenges it brings. Informed career decision-making is therefore essential. The study was exploratory and qualitative in nature, conducted within an interpretive paradigm. A purposeful sample consisting of 18 grade 12 learners at a rural high school in Limpopo was utilised. Semi-structured interviews were conducted and data were analysed using the thematic analysis. The study findings identified the factors considered by the learners under study in career decision-making as well as the challenges they face, when making career related decisions. The results were integrated with literature and theory and finally recommendations to aid the learners’ in their career decision-making. Recommendations for future research were also made. / Industrial and Organisational Psychology / M. Com. (Industrial and Organisational Psychology)

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