The focus of this research was to investigate the lack of access to primary education in King William's Town district in Eastern Cape which is inhibiting rural community development. The aim of the study was to determine whether geographic location have effects on attendance of school, to perceive gender discrepancy in primary education, to investigate what cost as a factor that contributes to a child's access and attendance to a primary education and to make recommendations to improve the situation. The study followed a descriptive research method. Data was collected by studying relevant existing literature. Document analysis was used to analyse the data and recommendations for improvement were made. The findings revealed that the day to day attendance of learners is below what it should be, which lead to dropouts, non-compliance with legislation, inadequate monitoring and evaluation. There is a need to recruit Department officials with a particular level of education, knowledge, understanding and expertise to minimise the chances of failure. Recommendations are finally made to mitigate the problem situation

There is growing interest in research and development activities on biomass gasification technologies as an alternative to fossil fuels technologies. However not much has been done in terms of technology transfer, particularly in under-developed and developing countries such as South Africa. This is mainly because of the lack of resources such as funding. Most parts of the under-developed and developing countries fall within rural areas and semi-urban centers, which are endowed with biomass resources. South Africa has a number of sawmill operators who generate tons of biomass waste during processing of timber; the large proportion of this is burned in furnaces as a means for waste management while a very small proportion is collected and used by people in rural areas for cooking their food. The majority of people in rural areas of South Africa are either unemployed or cannot afford the current energy services. The main aim of this research was to establish the viability of electricity generation for community economic development through biomass gasification, specifically using the locally designed System Johansson Biomass Gasifier™ (SJBG), and to establish the efficiency of the gasifier and associated components with a view of developing strategies to enhance it. The study established the technical and economic feasibility of using the SJBG to generate low-cost electricity for community empowerment. The study also developed strategies to improve the particle collection efficiency of the cyclone. In addition to this, a low-cost gas and temperature monitoring system capable of monitoring gas and temperature at various points of the gasifier was developed. The system was built from three Non- Dispersive Infrared gas sensors, one Palladium/Nickel gas sensor and four type K thermocouples. The study also investigated the impact of fuel compartment condensates on gasifier conversion efficiency. This is an area that has not yet been well researched since much has been done on energy recovery using combined heat and power applications that do not utilize the energy in condensates because these are produced in the gasifier and drained with chemical energy stored in them. The study established that the condensates do not have a significant impact on efficiency.

Thesis (M.Dev.) --University of Limpopo, 2008 / Rural sanitation researchers, particularly in the Limpopo Province, have not offered theories in relation to the patterns of the development of rural sanitation. Several researchers have concerned themselves with the need for the solution of water supply but not sanitation services. The present study seeks to enhance the understanding of the dynamics of the patterns of the development of rural sanitation in the Capricorn District Municipality, in particular at the Eisleben Village. This research paper applied an evaluative methodology to assess the impact of VIP sanitation technology at Eisleben Village at Ramokgopa under Capricorn District Municipality in Limpopo Province in comparison to dry sanitation. Supportive cases studies on sanitation delivery in South Africa have also been cited to where both technologies have been applied to assess their impact to the health and dignity of the communities, the environmental impacts. Examples of such case studies included examples of the Mosvold Hospital Sanitation Programme, the Northern Cape Household Sanitation Programme, the eThekwini Water and Sanitation Programme and the Dry sanitation in an urban environment at Weiler’s Farm in Johannesburg. The following five major findings emerged from the study: 1. Sanitation development should be community driven in terms of information, knowledge and decision making. 2. There is need for the vision of health, hygiene and education strategy for water and sanitation. Efficient and effective hygiene education is urgently needed. 3. There is resounding evidence from previous sanitation projects done in various places in South Africa that dry or waterless sanitation has been found to be an adequate sanitation technology that best suits urban, peri-urban and rural areas. 4. There is need to replace VIP with a better technology such as dry sanitation as a matter of urgency to avoid unhygienic and unhealthy conditions due to inadequate VIP sanitation technology. vii 5. Sanitation solution and technology should comply with the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) policies of adequate sustainable water and adequate sustainable sanitation solution, Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and the German Helmhotz Association HFG’s “concept of integrated sustainable development”. In the main, the study suggests possible strategies and mechanisms to overcome the challenges that are identified in the research, with the idea in mind of contributing in improving sanitation, not only in the Eisleben Village, but rather to all rural communities in the Limpopo Province, South Africa.

MAdmin / Department of Public and Development Administration

Includes bibliography. / This is an exploratory study which investigates changes introduced by management on farms in Elgin and explores the perceptions of some of those involved in the changes. The initiatives and activities of the Rural Foundation for Community Development (Rural Foundation) and its involvement in these changes forms a crucial part of the exploration. Three questions direct the study. 1. What are the changes that have been introduced? 2. Why were they introduced? 3. What is the social meaning of the changes? The study is based on a case study of four farms. Documentary material was collected from a variety of sources including the Rural Foundation, the South African Government, as well as other agencies operating in the field. Interviews with various actors were conducted, including management and a selection of workers on each of the four farms, Rural Foundation officials as well as other actors connected to the developments on the farms. The study is informed by historical materialist theory and draws from certain labour process theories. Important for the study was the discussion raised in these theories around the effect that workers' motivation has on their productivity. The study is located in the context of the national historical development of capitalist agriculture since the Second World War. More specifically it is situated locally in terms of changes that occurred on Elgin farms more generally prior to the 1980's as well as the present general circumstances in the area. Three fields of change are identified on the four farms: (i) training of workers, (ii) new incentives and pay structures, and (iii) community development. It is asserted that these changes are measures introduced by management in an attempt to, firstly, decrease production costs by employing greater numbers of women and migrant workers and paying them less. Secondly, they are aimed at increasing the productivity of workers through measures designed to improve the 'quality' and stability of workers and to develop a new authority structure on the farms. Four trends are thus identified as occurring on the farms: 1. Increasing use of women and migrant workers. 2. An improvement in workers' living conditions and standards. 3. An increasing emphasis on improving workers' productivity. 4. A shift in the emphasis on control towards developing workers' consent.

With the advent of President Zuma’s administration, the issue of rural development became one of the key focal areas in South Africa (2009-2014). This is also premised in the South African Constitution (Constitution of the Republic of South Africa of 1996) which provides for planning, coordination and implementation of development (rural development included) as one of the key foundations of a developmental state that South Africa envisages. Previous research found that the poorest people in South Africa live in the rural areas where they are still poor, disempowered, characterised with high dependency and outmigration of the economically active. This research used a mixed method approach where quantitative and qualitative questionnaires were used to collect primary data from 50 heads of household in Impumelelo. It was found that the Impumelelo heads of household generally hold positive perceptions on whether service delivery has improved in Impumelelo since the introduction of Comprehensive Rural Development Programme. However, there has been mixed reactions on whether locals have had access to jobs locally and on the issue of skills development for the youth. The majority of Impumelelo heads of household hold negative perceptions on whether Comprehensive Rural Development Programme has been beneficial to women empowerment, youth empowerment and long term employment in Impumelelo. / GR2018

Thesis (M.Sc. (Interdisciplinary Global Change Studies))--University of the Witwatersrand, Faculty of Science, School of Geography, Archaeology & Environmental Studies, 2017. / The objective of the thesis was to determine the relationship between climate variability and rural livelihoods in the Vhembe District Municipality situated in the extreme north of South Africa. These relationships ranged between food and nutritional security, land tenure, financial security, domestic politics and their impacts on human well-being in terms of the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework. The thesis uses a multi-discipline approach to assess the socio-economic outcomes of poor support to rural households that are struggling to attain an acceptable standard of living in the face of increasing challenges brought about by climate change. It also looked to investigate the capacity of rural households to adapt to the challenges of living in such an area. Results were obtained through questionnaires and basic interviews conducted among the residents of three selected areas in the Vhembe District of South Africa. The results demonstrate that residents of Vhembe go through daily suffering as a result of poor support and assistance in adapting to the challenges of climate change in the area and its impact on their livelihoods. The on-going academic literature suggests that integrated livelihood resilience is essential to adaptation to climate variability and that this can reduce the vulnerability of these areas. It also calls for the development and maintenance of effective local institutions supported by public private partnerships. Gaps identified in the literature suggested that more knowledge on land use change caused by seasonal variability as a result of the El Niño Southern Oscillation was needed as well as the prevalence of indigenous knowledge systems in adapting to these changes. It was found that local knowledge and effective local institutions were not as prevalent as expected in achieving livelihood adaptation. Some key findings were that 59% of households did not have access to arable land with 49% of respondents stating that they did not plant crops in the recent season due to the poor rains experienced. Furthermore, the reliance on social grants was notably high with 32% of respondents relying on these. Some residents who cannot pay to have access to electricity are forced to collect or buy firewood for everyday use. Furthermore, only 9% of respondents stated that they had access to flush toilets. These issues are shown to have environmental and other social consequences in the target communities. The thesis concludes that management of natural resources in Vhembe needs to be improved, as these are potential safety nets for the rural poor. It also suggests that there will need to be more support by government and business to set up beneficial agricultural projects to sustainably grow inclusive prosperity for rural residents of the Vhembe District. Key Words: Climate Variability, Sustainable Livelihood Framework, Adaptive Capacity / XL2018

PHDRDV / Institute for Rural Development

Thesis (MTh)--Stellenbosch University, 2015. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The congregation of Kathu is the largest Dutch Reformed Church congregation in the Northern Cape. It is a congregation with a huge potential to show signs of the kingdom of God, especially in the countryside. The congregation has the ability to be a leader to effect meaningful change in society. Many people living in the countryside are losing hope because of economic regression. It is their experience that politicians do not keep their promises, with the result that everyone experiences declining living standards. The potential of the congregation has to do with the following: (1) there is a lot of economic development and progress in the area, (2) there is a lot of energy in the congregation because of the large number of young people as well as the many ambitious people working on the mines. The opportunities for the congregation to make a difference go hand in hand with the development of a whole new town. The population of Kathu has already doubled in size since 2001 and it is expected to grow even further. There are many opportunities for the congregation to get involved with community projects in a fast changing environment. The needs and the opportunities are endless. The congregation has credibility in our local society and there are good relationships and cooperation between the congregation and other role players. Despite these opportunities the congregation is reluctant to get involved. In the beginning the hypothesis was that it is due to a skewed view of what the church is. Because the congregation is in the countryside it was thought that the members might have a politically conservative opinion about the church getting involved in community matters. This study has proved that it is not the case. It is much more likely that the problem lies with the leadership or even with the systems and structures that are (not) in place. If the leadership would be more willing to take risks, they might find that they have many members waiting to follow them. Or if the systems were in place, it would be much easier for the members to know where and how to get involved. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die gemeente Kathu is die grootste plattelandse gemeente van die NG Kerk in die Noordkaap. Dit is ʼn gemeente met baie potensiaal om te groei en om tekens van die koninkryk te wys spesifiek in die platteland. Dit is ʼn gemeente wat leiding kan neem en ʼn verskil kan maak. Baie plattelanders is besig om vanweë ekonomiese agteruitgang hoop te verloor. Hulle ervaring is dat politici nie hul beloftes nakom nie en dat hulle algaande besig is om net meer te veragter. Die potensiaal van die gemeente hang saam met die volgende: (1) daar is tans baie ontwikkeling en ekonomiese vooruitgang in die omgewing, (2) daar is baie energie in die gemeente aangesien daar baie jongmense is en ook baie ambisieuse mense op die myne. Die geleenthede vir die gemeente om ʼn verskil te maak hang veral saam met die nuwe dorpsontwikkeling. Daar is enorme ruimte vir die kerk om betrokke te raak by gemeenskapsprojekte in die snel veranderende omgewing. Die behoeftes is groot en die geleentheid is groot. Die NG gemeente Kathu het ook geloofwaardigheid in die omgewing en daar is goeie verhoudings en samewerking tussen die gemeente en ander rolspelers in Kathu. Tog is dit asof die gemeente stadig is om betrokke te raak. Die aanvanklike hipotese was dat dit te make het met die kerkbegrip van die lidmate. Aangesien die gemeente in die platteland geleë is, is gemeen dat die gemiddelde lidmaat polities konserwatief van opinie is en daarom nie saamstem dat die kerk in die samelewing betrokke moet wees nie (die kerk moet nie “politiek” bedryf nie). Die studie het dit egter verkeerd bewys. Die waarskynlikheid is groter dat dit te make het met die leierskap wat nie genoeg risiko’s waag in die verband nie, asook ’n gebrek aan goeie sisteme en strukture wat dit vir lidmate moontlik maak om in die gemeenskap in te skakel.

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2011. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Poverty in South Africa’s rural areas is complex and severe, especially among female-headed households. The marginalisation of South Africa’s rural areas over a period of decades resulted in an acute lack of economic opportunities, limited infrastructure and a serious breakdown of social capital. Women living in rural areas are particularly poor in moneymetric terms; they are often illiterate and therefore isolated from economic and social opportunities; and many fall victim to violence in the household. They eke out a meagre existence, based on small-scale agriculture, marginal self-employment or limited wage and remittance income. While such income diversification, combined with the government’s range of development interventions, helps to buffer them against risks such as illness, death and disaster, rural poverty is not just a matter of income and assets. It is also rooted in other disadvantages, such as exclusion, disempowerment and unequal power relations. These all contribute to making poverty a multidimensional phenomenon. The South African government has committed significant resources to poverty intervention over the past 17 years. These interventions, which include social assistance grants, basic municipal services and free water, electricity, schooling and health services, certainly have an impact on the livelihoods of the rural poor, but they do not seem to bring a significant improvement in the standard of living of the most vulnerable people in marginalised areas. There is increasing recognition in the poverty literature that vulnerabilities – of income, health, social exclusion and service delivery – are linked, and that support programmes should focus not only on increasing the poor’s access to resources and assets but also on empowering individuals to use these assets and make decisions. This study investigates the potential of microfinance to address the overlapping vulnerabilities experienced by women in South Africa’s rural areas. It suggests that microfinance has the potential to generate positive shifts in selected indicators of empowerment and well-being among participating women in rural areas. These claims are tested by evaluating data gathered among clients of the Small Enterprise Foundation (SEF) against a conceptual framework. The framework offers a stepwise progression away from vulnerability: acquiring internal skills (empowerment), strengthening social capital, accumulating assets and, eventually, transforming these assets into wealth. Existing datasets, gathered over a period of five years in rural Limpopo and representing both a group that received microfinance from SEF and a control group, were examined. No evidence could be found that the recipients of SEF’s microfinance experienced increased empowerment, but the results did provide evidence that belonging to the group that received microfinance increased the likelihood of experiencing livelihood security and well-being. The findings show that microfinance can, even over the short term, make a difference in people’s ability to smooth their consumption and, as such, provide them with more secure livelihoods. The research also suggests that microfinance assists women in rural areas in constructing and maintaining a portfolio of assets, thus improving well-being among the recipients of microfinance. The scope of the study was confined to measuring the effect of microfinance on selected poverty indicators, and it did not attempt to prove that microfinance alleviates poverty. As such, the research demonstrates that the government’s efforts to reduce rural poverty can be complemented by micro-level interventions such as access to finance. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Armoede in Suid-Afrika se landelike gebiede is kompleks en straf, veral vir huishoudings met vroue aan die hoof. Landelike gebiede is vir dekades lank gemarginaliseer en dit het gelei tot gebrekkige ekonomiese geleenthede, beperkte infrastruktuur en ‘n ineenstorting van sosiale kapitaal. Vroue in Suid-Afrika se landelike gebiede is nie net arm in monetêre terme nie, maar ook dikwels ongelettered, geïsoleerd van ekonomiese en sosiale geleenthede, en dikwels die slagoffers van huishoudelike geweld. Hul huishoudings oorleef deur die skamele bestaan wat hulle maak uit bestaansboerdery, gebrekkige besoldiging en trekarbeider lone. Alhoewel die regering se wydverspreide ontwikkelingshulp daartoe bydra om arm mense te help om risiko’s soos siekte, dood en natuurrampe te kan hanteer, gaan landelike armoede oor veel meer as net inkomste en bates, en sluit dit ook ontmagtiging, uitsluiting en ongelyke magsverdeling in. Al hierdie ontberinge maak armoede ‘n multidimensionele verskynsel. Die Suid-Afrikaanse regering het oor die afgelope 17 jaar aansienlike bronne op armoede verligting gespandeer. Die hulp, wat maatskaplike toelaes, basiese munisipale dienslewering, gratis water, elektrisiteit, opvoeding en gesondheidsdienste insluit, het sonder twyfel die oorlewing van die armes in landelike gebiede meer houdbaar gemaak, maar tog lyk dit nie of die lewenskwaliteit van die mees kwesbare huishoudings in die gemarginaliseerde areas verbeter het nie. Die armoede-literatuur dui daarop dat verskillende vorms van kwesbaarheid – kwesbaarheid in terme van inkomste, gesondheid, sosiale uitsluiting en dienslewering – met mekaar verband hou. Daarom is dit belangrik dat hulpverlening nie alleen vir die armes toegang gee tot hulpbronne en bates nie, maar ook die individue bemagtig om die bronne te gebruik en besluite te neem. Hierdie studie ondersoek die potensiaal van mikrofinansiering om die verskeidenheid sosiale kwesbaarhede wat vroue in Suid Afrika se landelike gebiede ervaar aan te spreek. Die studie voer aan dat mikrofinansiering kan lei tot positiewe veranderinge in geselekteerde bemagtigings- en welvaarts-indikatore onder deelnemende vroue. Data wat versamel is onder die kliente van die Small Enterprise Foundation (SEF) word gebruik om hierdie aansprake te evalueer. Die studie is gedoen teen die agtergrond van ‘n konseptuele model, wat voorhou dat armoede en kwesbaarheid oorkom kan word as ‘n trapsgewyse program gevolg word – deur eerstens kundigheid (bemagtiging) te verkry, daarna sosiale kapitaal te versterk, bates op te bou en uiteindelik die bates in rykdom te omskep beweeg die vroue, en hul huishoudings, al verder weg van hulle aanvanklike kwesbaarheid. Bestaande data, versamel oor ‘n tydperk van vyf jaar in die landelike gebiede van Limpopo is geanaliseer. Die data verteenwoordig twee groepe – ‘n groep wat mikrofinansiering ontvang het en ‘n kontrole groep. Geen empiriese bewyse kon gevind word dat die vroue wat mikrofinansiering van SEF ontvang het, bemagtig is nie. Die resultate het wel daarop gedui dat vroue wat mikrofinansiering ontvang na alle waarskynlikheid meer bestaans-sekerheid het en dat hulle welvaart verbeter het. Die bevindinge dui daarop dat mikrofinansiering, selfs oor die kort termyn, ‘n wesenlike verskil kan maak in die vermoë van kwesbare vroue om hulle verbruik, oor tyd, beter te bestuur en sodoende bestaans-sekuriteit te verseker. Die navorsing toon ook dat mikrofinansiering vroue in landelike gebiede kan help om ‘n portefeulje van bates te skep en te handhaaf, wat bydra tot groter welvaart. Hierdie studie het die impak van mikrofinansiering op geselekteerde armoede indikatore geevalueer, en het nie gepoog om te bewys dat mikrofinansiering armoede verlig nie. Sodoende dui die navorsing daarop dat die regering se pogings om armoede te verlig kan baat vind by mikrovlakintervensies soos mikrofinansiering.