New states are often born in a volatile environment, in which the survival of the new country is uncertain. While analysis of the nationalizing new governments exists, research focuses mainly on domestic politics. I argue that the treatment of minority that remains in the new states is a function of the interaction of the dual threat posed by the minority itself domestically on one hand and the international threat coming from the mother state to protect its kin abroad on the other hand. Specifically, I argue that there is a curvilinear relationship between domestic and international threat and the extent of discrimination against the politically relevant minority. Most discrimination takes place when domestic and international threats are moderate because in this case there is a balance of power between the government, the minority, and the rump state. With time-series-cross-sectional (TSCS) data analysis this dissertation systematically tests the treatment of Russian and Serbian minorities in all post-Soviet and post-Yugoslav states between 1991 and 2006 and finds statistically significant results for the curvilinear hypothesis. Territorial concentration of the minority and the ratio of national capabilities between the mother and the seceded states prove to be especially important predictors of minority treatment. In addition, with most similar systems (MSS), most different systems (MDS) design methods, and directed case studies I apply the curvilinear hypothesis to the Russian minority in the Baltic States and the Central Asian Republics, and also to the Serb minority in the countries of the former Yugoslavia to present a detailed analysis.

The subject of this diploma thesis is the current immigration of Russian citizens to the Czech Republic. The topic is reviewed mainly in the context of demographic deficit and population aging. Russian migration to the Czech Republic has a long history but over time its form and structure have changed significantly. At the same time, migration can have both positive and negative consequences for the Czech Republic, especially from a political and socio-economic point of view. This work presents the concept of so-called replacement migration applied to the Russian minority in the Czech Republic as a possible solution to the emerging demographic problems in the country. Therefore, the extent to which the concept of replacement migration is functional and whether the Russian minority in the Czech Republic is a suitable subject for this concept will be examined. This diploma thesis is a case study with elements of comparative analysis, based on available theoretical concepts and statistical data. Exploring further this topic could open a discussion on the role of migration in the Czech Republic in context of increasing alarming demographic changes.

Esse trabalho se ocupa do processo de construção dos Estados letão e estoniano após o fim da URSS, tendo como pano de fundo a exclusão da minoria russa residente nesses países. O objetivo da presente dissertação é compreender as razões para a existência de pessoas em um limbo social, político e jurídico, definidas como “não-cidadãs” no Báltico. Sugere-se que essa situação decorre da contradição inerente ao processo de independência de Letônia e Estônia no pós-Guerra Fria: por um lado, marcado por características próprias da constituição do Estado moderno excludente e, por outro, permeado pelas condicionalidades para associação às instituições europeias. A partir de uma perspectiva teórica pós-estruturalista, entende-se a construção dos Estados como uma prática performática resultante de relações de poder. No caso em tela, essas relações podem ser identificadas em nível “interno” e “externo”. Internamente, demonstra-se que a construção dos Estados letão e estoniano ocorreu por meio do estabelecimento de leis de cidadania excludentes contra a minoria russa, alimentada por um cenário político de legitimação das elites nacionais no poder. Em nível “externo”, a adequação dessa construção estatal excludente foi modificada pelos critérios para adesão às instituições europeias. Porém, paradoxalmente, essa pressão externa não foi suficiente para que as minorias russas adquirissem os direitos defendidos pelas instituições europeias, exatamente em razão de a própria identidade europeia ser construída a partir da oposição à Rússia. Por isso, o lugar dos “não-cidadãos” na construção estatal do Báltico é a fronteira moral entre o “interno” e o “externo”, o nacional e o pós-nacional. / This study deals with the construction process of the modern Latvian and Estonian states after the end of the USSR, using as a backdrop the exclusion of the Russian minority residing in these countries. This dissertation’s aim is to understand the reasons for the existence of people in a social, political and legal limbo, defined as "non-citizens" in the Baltic countries. It is suggested that this situation arises from the inherent contradiction in Latvia and Estonia’s independence process in the post-Cold War: on the one hand, marked by the characteristics constitution of the modern exclusionary State, and, on the other hand, permeated by membership conditionalities of European institutions. From a post-structuralist theoretical perspective, this study understands the construction of states as a performative practice resulting from power relations. In this case, these relationships can be identified internally and externally. Internally, it is demonstrated that Latvian and Estonian states’ construction occurred through the exclusionary citizenship laws establishment against the Russian minority, fueled by a political scenario of legitimizing the national elites in power. At the external level, the adequacy of this exclusionary state construction was modified by the criteria for membership of the European institutions. However, paradoxically, this external pressure was not enough for the Russian minorities to acquire the rights defended by the European institutions, precisely because the European identity itself was built from the opposition to Russia. Therefore, the place of the "non-citizens" in the construction of the Baltic States is the moral boundary between the internal and the external, the national and post-national.

The objective of this thesis is to examine the impact of nation building policies over the Russian minority in post-Soviet Kazakhstan. In order to do so, the thesis first examines the Soviet nationality policies in general and their practice in Kazakhstan in particular. Second, the thesis examines the impact of the post-Soviet nation building policies over the Russians in Kazakhstan by focusing on five major issues: political elites, state planning and recruitment policy, language policy and rewriting of history, issue of citizenship and the relocation of the state capital. As a result, the thesis argues that, the post-Soviet nation building policies of Kazakhstan have overall had a negative impact over the Russian minority living in the republic. It is argued that this negative impact is mostly visible in the areas employment, and social and cultural spheres. In addition, the thesis also argues that opponents of Kazakh President Nursultan Nazarbaev, both Russian and Kazakh, have largely been curbed by the Kazakh government.

Esse trabalho se ocupa do processo de construção dos Estados letão e estoniano após o fim da URSS, tendo como pano de fundo a exclusão da minoria russa residente nesses países. O objetivo da presente dissertação é compreender as razões para a existência de pessoas em um limbo social, político e jurídico, definidas como “não-cidadãs” no Báltico. Sugere-se que essa situação decorre da contradição inerente ao processo de independência de Letônia e Estônia no pós-Guerra Fria: por um lado, marcado por características próprias da constituição do Estado moderno excludente e, por outro, permeado pelas condicionalidades para associação às instituições europeias. A partir de uma perspectiva teórica pós-estruturalista, entende-se a construção dos Estados como uma prática performática resultante de relações de poder. No caso em tela, essas relações podem ser identificadas em nível “interno” e “externo”. Internamente, demonstra-se que a construção dos Estados letão e estoniano ocorreu por meio do estabelecimento de leis de cidadania excludentes contra a minoria russa, alimentada por um cenário político de legitimação das elites nacionais no poder. Em nível “externo”, a adequação dessa construção estatal excludente foi modificada pelos critérios para adesão às instituições europeias. Porém, paradoxalmente, essa pressão externa não foi suficiente para que as minorias russas adquirissem os direitos defendidos pelas instituições europeias, exatamente em razão de a própria identidade europeia ser construída a partir da oposição à Rússia. Por isso, o lugar dos “não-cidadãos” na construção estatal do Báltico é a fronteira moral entre o “interno” e o “externo”, o nacional e o pós-nacional. / This study deals with the construction process of the modern Latvian and Estonian states after the end of the USSR, using as a backdrop the exclusion of the Russian minority residing in these countries. This dissertation’s aim is to understand the reasons for the existence of people in a social, political and legal limbo, defined as "non-citizens" in the Baltic countries. It is suggested that this situation arises from the inherent contradiction in Latvia and Estonia’s independence process in the post-Cold War: on the one hand, marked by the characteristics constitution of the modern exclusionary State, and, on the other hand, permeated by membership conditionalities of European institutions. From a post-structuralist theoretical perspective, this study understands the construction of states as a performative practice resulting from power relations. In this case, these relationships can be identified internally and externally. Internally, it is demonstrated that Latvian and Estonian states’ construction occurred through the exclusionary citizenship laws establishment against the Russian minority, fueled by a political scenario of legitimizing the national elites in power. At the external level, the adequacy of this exclusionary state construction was modified by the criteria for membership of the European institutions. However, paradoxically, this external pressure was not enough for the Russian minorities to acquire the rights defended by the European institutions, precisely because the European identity itself was built from the opposition to Russia. Therefore, the place of the "non-citizens" in the construction of the Baltic States is the moral boundary between the internal and the external, the national and post-national.

Esse trabalho se ocupa do processo de construção dos Estados letão e estoniano após o fim da URSS, tendo como pano de fundo a exclusão da minoria russa residente nesses países. O objetivo da presente dissertação é compreender as razões para a existência de pessoas em um limbo social, político e jurídico, definidas como “não-cidadãs” no Báltico. Sugere-se que essa situação decorre da contradição inerente ao processo de independência de Letônia e Estônia no pós-Guerra Fria: por um lado, marcado por características próprias da constituição do Estado moderno excludente e, por outro, permeado pelas condicionalidades para associação às instituições europeias. A partir de uma perspectiva teórica pós-estruturalista, entende-se a construção dos Estados como uma prática performática resultante de relações de poder. No caso em tela, essas relações podem ser identificadas em nível “interno” e “externo”. Internamente, demonstra-se que a construção dos Estados letão e estoniano ocorreu por meio do estabelecimento de leis de cidadania excludentes contra a minoria russa, alimentada por um cenário político de legitimação das elites nacionais no poder. Em nível “externo”, a adequação dessa construção estatal excludente foi modificada pelos critérios para adesão às instituições europeias. Porém, paradoxalmente, essa pressão externa não foi suficiente para que as minorias russas adquirissem os direitos defendidos pelas instituições europeias, exatamente em razão de a própria identidade europeia ser construída a partir da oposição à Rússia. Por isso, o lugar dos “não-cidadãos” na construção estatal do Báltico é a fronteira moral entre o “interno” e o “externo”, o nacional e o pós-nacional. / This study deals with the construction process of the modern Latvian and Estonian states after the end of the USSR, using as a backdrop the exclusion of the Russian minority residing in these countries. This dissertation’s aim is to understand the reasons for the existence of people in a social, political and legal limbo, defined as "non-citizens" in the Baltic countries. It is suggested that this situation arises from the inherent contradiction in Latvia and Estonia’s independence process in the post-Cold War: on the one hand, marked by the characteristics constitution of the modern exclusionary State, and, on the other hand, permeated by membership conditionalities of European institutions. From a post-structuralist theoretical perspective, this study understands the construction of states as a performative practice resulting from power relations. In this case, these relationships can be identified internally and externally. Internally, it is demonstrated that Latvian and Estonian states’ construction occurred through the exclusionary citizenship laws establishment against the Russian minority, fueled by a political scenario of legitimizing the national elites in power. At the external level, the adequacy of this exclusionary state construction was modified by the criteria for membership of the European institutions. However, paradoxically, this external pressure was not enough for the Russian minorities to acquire the rights defended by the European institutions, precisely because the European identity itself was built from the opposition to Russia. Therefore, the place of the "non-citizens" in the construction of the Baltic States is the moral boundary between the internal and the external, the national and post-national.

The thesis, entitled Russian Identity: Minority Schools in Contemporary Estonia, analyses Russian upper-secondary schooling in Estonia from the dissolution of the Soviet Union until 2012. It focuses on two issues, which are considered to be important for national-identity building of Russian students living in Estonia: language of instruction and history teaching. In terms of the first issue, the thesis aims to show how is the Estonian government implementing the reform introducing mandatory 60% of curricula in Estonian and how is it perceived by Russian students and their teachers. In terms of the second issue, the thesis examines perception of the Soviet period by the Russian students comparing to the "official" Estonian interpretation advocated by the Ministry of Education. First part of the work focuses on the integration process of Russians into Estonian society stressing its difficulties and implications concerning the national identity of Russians living in Estonia. Second part finally examines the two particular issues (language-of-instruction reform and history teaching) from the point of view of the available written sources, while the final and the key part of the thesis analyses the same issues based on a field research at Russian schools in Estonia.

The subject of this thesis is a detailed mapping transformation Baltic States after 1991, and their coexistence with the Russian minority in Latvia. The work seeks to analyze and describe the specific case situation that took place after 1991. The work deals with the development of Latvia, the Russian minority status and the introduction of controversial laws on citizenship. Tries to find answers to questions about what led Latvia to the strict laws on citizenship. The work shows, that the main reason is the big Russian minority in these countries, which is considered like a threat to the political independence of the Baltic states. The first part is focused on the characteristics of minorities, showing different perspectives on the history and mapping of the Baltic States. The second part details the progress, that affect a very strained relationship between Latvians and the Russian minority, which led to the introduction of strict rules for obtaining citizenship in Latvia.

無論是沙皇政權或是蘇維埃政權，都會在侵略併吞而來的土地上實行俄化或是蘇維埃化的政策，希望能建立一個大一統的國家，創造一個享有共同文化、共同語言、甚至是有共同認同的民族。但是，1991年蘇聯的解體，不只打破了蘇共創造「蘇維埃民族」的美夢，還證明了蘇聯民族政策的嚴重錯誤。 19世紀以前，進入波海地區的俄羅斯人數量並不多。19世紀之後，沙皇政府開始在此區實行大規模的俄化，並開始將大批的俄羅斯人遷移至此。從第一次世界大戰以後到第二次世界大戰這段期間，波海三國享有了一段短暫的獨立國家時期。這個時期，基本上，波海三國對其境內的俄羅斯人是採取尊重的態度。第二次世界大戰爆發，因為德蘇密約的簽訂，使波海三國再次地被蘇聯併吞。史達林佔領波海三國之後，立刻大規模地流放波海三國的人民，並將大批的俄羅斯人引進，使愛沙尼亞與拉脫維亞兩國在人口統計學上的俄化情形十分嚴重。 1985年戈巴契夫上台以後，波海三國利用改革的機會，追求獨立，最後，以非暴力的方式獲得成功，重建獨立國家。波海三國獨立以後，俄羅斯人的地位有了很大的改變，一下子從優勢的統治地位變成弱勢的少數民族。愛沙尼亞與拉脫維亞因為懷疑俄羅斯人的忠誠度以及擔心會被滅族，所以採取了排外的公民權法，使大部分的俄羅斯人都無法獲得公民權。另外，因為大部分的俄羅斯人都不會說愛沙尼亞語或拉脫維亞語，所以不僅在取得公民權上有困難，在經濟與社會處境上也變得比較差。至於俄羅斯人的認同，可以說是複雜的。大多數的俄羅斯人在政治上是對所居住的共和國忠誠，在文化上還是認為自己是屬於俄羅斯文化的一部份。至於立陶宛，賦予境內大部分的俄羅斯人公民權，因此，立陶宛的族群關係較緩和。 俄羅斯政府自認為是境外俄羅斯人權益的捍衛者，但是，對於波海三國的少數民族政策所能造成的影響並不大。相反地，西方政府的批評與建議常常能成功地影響波海三國的決策。主要的原因在於波海三國急切地想回歸歐洲、西方政府與組織能提供援助、滿足國家安全需求與歐安組織派遣使節到愛、拉兩國。 / No matter what it was the Czar’s regime or the Soviet government, it would always implement a policy of Russification or Sovietization on invaded lands, in order to establish a united nation with common culture, shared the same language and national identity. However, since the breaking down of the Soviet Union in 1991, not only the dream of the ‘Soviet People’ broke down, but it also suggested a misleading of ethnic-national policy. Before the 19th century, there were not many Russians in the Baltic area. After the 19th century, the Czar’s regime started to implement the policy of Russification on a large scale, and it also moved many Russians to settle there. During the period of the First World War and the Second World War, the Baltic States had enjoyed a short period as independent nations. In this period, the Baltic States basically treated the Russians within their states with respect. Because Germany and Russia had signed a treaty before the Second World War, therefore, when the war erupted, the Baltic States were once again occupied by the Russia. After Stalin took over the Baltic States, he exiles people from the Baltic States on a large scale, while moving many Russians into these countries. As a result, Estonia and Latvia were seriously Russificated demogranphically. In 1985, Gorbachev gained the power. While the Russia government was reforming its political entity, the Baltic States seized the opportunity to go independent. They successfully gained their independence through non-violent method and rebuild themselves as independent states. Ever since the Baltic States became independent, the status of the Russians within their regions had changed rapidly. The Russians were once the dominant ruling class and suddenly became the ruled minority. Estonia and Latvia are concerned with the issues of royalty of the Russian people, also they were worried that they would become extinct as an ethnic group, therefore, they adopted an exclusive citizenship laws. Because most of the Russians could not speak Estonian and Latvian languages, therefore, they had difficulties to acquire the citizenship and they also did poorly financially and politically within these two nations. As for the notion of the Russian identity, it was a very complicated issue. Most Russians are politically royal to the Republics they reside, but culturally they still considered themselves as part of the Russian culture. In Lithuania, it granted most of the Russians that reside in its nation the citizenship; therefore, the ethnic relationship within the country was less tense comparatively. Russian government always views itself as the protector of the rights of its people that reside in other countries. However, this does not affect the policies regarding the minority in the Baltic States. On the other hand, the criticism and suggestions from the western governments can often affect the process of the policy-making in the Baltic States. The main reason is that the Baltic States are eager to return to Europe, and they can acquire aids from the western governments and organizations, securing their nations. Another reason is Estonia and Latvia hopefully get rid of the representatives from OSCE as soon as possible.

This thesis examines the changing identities of the Estonian Russophone minority based on the literary works of Estonian Russophone writers. It analyses Andrei Ivanov’s short novel Untermensch: the part of me that is torn to pieces applying the concepts of Baltic postcolonial identities and hybridity. The theoretical analysis of the thesis is built on the works of local literary researchers self-identifying with the Estonian Russophone minority, and the Baltic postcolonial thought.   The demographic and linguistic landscape of Estonia changed dramatically due to the Soviet colonisation. In 2021, 29% of Estonian population was Russian-speaking — a heterogenous group of people with different ethnic, historical, and cultural backgrounds. In his text Ivanov describes how the Russian neo-colonial war against Ukraine and the imperial vision for the future of Europe has turned the identity of these people into an international battlefield. / Uppsatsen undersöker den estniska rysktalande minoritetens förändrande identiteter och utgår från Estlands rysktalande författares litterära verk. Den analyserar Andrei Ivanovs kortroman Untermensch: den sönderslitna sidan av mig genom att applicera begreppen baltisk postkolonial identitet och hybriditet. Den teoretiska delen av uppsatsen bygger på arbetet av de lokala litteraturforskarna som identifierar sig med den estniska rysktalande minoriteten, och den baltiska postkoloniala litteraturforskningen.        Det demografiska och lingvistiska landskapet i Estland förändrades dramatiskt på grund av den sovjetiska kolonisationen. År 2021 var 29 % av Estlands befolkning rysktalande — det är en heterogen grupp av människor med mångfald av etniska, historiska och kulturella bakgrunder. I sin text beskriver Ivanov hur det ryska neokoloniala kriget mot Ukraina och den ryska imperialistiska framtidsvisionen för Europa har gjort identiteter av dessa människor till ett internationellt slagfält. / В данной диссертации исследуется изменение идентичности эстонского русскоязычного меньшинства на основе литературных произведений эстонских русскоязычных писателей. Анализируется повесть Андрея Иванова «Untermensch: моя разорванная часть», применяя концепции балтийского постколониального тождества и гибридности. Теоретический анализ диссертации построен на трудах отечественных литературоведов, идентифицирующие себя с эстонским русскоязычным меньшинством и балтийской постколониальной мыслью.   Демографический и языковой ландшафт Эстонии резко изменился из-за советской колонизации. В 2021 году 29% населения Эстонии было русскоязычным — неоднородная группа людей разного этнического, исторического и культурного происхождения. В своем тексте Иванов описывает, как российская неоколониальная война против Украины и имперское видение будущей Европы превратило личности этих людей в международное поле битвы.