DC-SIGN, une lectine de type C, est un récepteur localisé à la surface des cellules dendritiques et impliqué dans la reconnaissance de nombreux pathogènes. Compte tenu du rôle central de la lectine DC-SIGN dans le détournement du système immunitaire par toute une série de pathogènes (VIH,Ebola,Dengue...),Ce récepteur est devenu une cible d'intérêt thérapeutique de premier plan. Au démarrage de ce travail, il était clair que la nature oligomérique de ce récepteur était au centre de ses propriétés de reconnaissance de pathogènes. Ainsi, nous avons entrepris le développement de molécules ligands, inhibiteurs potentiels, prenant en compte la dimension oligomerique de DC-SIGN. La structure du domaine CRD de DC-SIGN etait connue, mais très peu de données sur le récepteur dans sa version oligomerique étaient disponibles. Ainsi, nous avons procédé par technique SAXS à la caractérisation de l'organisation tétramerique de DC-SIGN qui est centrale dans la reconnaissance de pathogènes. Lors d'une exposition à un pathogènes, DC-SIGN est impliqué dans al reconnaissance et l'internalisation du pathogène dans différents compartiments lysosomiales où règne un pH acide. Ainsi, nous avons étudié les propriétés biochimiques de ce récepteur en relation avec son fonctionnement au niveau cellulaire (interaction, internalisation...).Nous avons démontré que la forme oligomerique du récepteur est pH-dépendante.

Cette thèse propose l'étude de matériaux composites industriels simplifiés constitués de caoutchouc non réticulé (copolymère styrène-butadiène « SBR ») renforcés par des charges nanométriques de silice hautement dispersible. Afin d'identifier les mécanismes physico-chimiques responsables de ce renforcement et être capable de l'optimiser, nous devons comprendre les corrélations existantes entre les propriétés macroscopiques du matériau et la structure des charges à différentes échelles.Pour cela, une large campagne d'expériences de diffusion de rayons-X aux petits angles (DXPA) ainsi que de nombreux clichés de microscopie électronique ont été réalisés. En couplant ces données avec des simulations Monte-Carlo, il a été notamment possible de mettre en avant la présence d'une organisation à trois niveaux en partant de billes élémentaires d'une dizaine de nanomètres formant des agrégats eux-mêmes arrangés selon un réseau tridimensionnel branché existant à travers tout l'échantillon.L'analyse du renforcement dans les nanocomposites a été effectuée par rhéométrie et analyse dynamique mécanique. D'autres techniques telles que la spectroscopie diélectrique, la résonance magnétique nucléaire, l'analyse thermogravimétrique ou la spectrométrie infrarouge ont également contribué à une caractérisation complète de ces matériaux, en particulier pour sonder la dynamique des chaînes de SBR à l'interface avec la charge.Afin de déceler les corrélations existantes entre structure et propriétés, nous nous sommes attachés à décrire systématiquement l'influence de paramètres-clés tels que la fraction volumique en silice, le type de polymère employé (greffable sur la silice ou pas) ou leur masse molaire sur la morphologie des charges (taille des agrégats, ...) ainsi que sur le comportement mécanique (module d'élasticité, ...) des composites. Ce travail a permis d'identifier la densité de greffage des chaines comme le paramètre définissant la structure des composites et impactant significativement le renforcement.Cette thèse, résolument tournée vers la compréhension fondamentale, s'inscrit, à terme, dans la recherche d'une loi de comportement décrivant l'effet de la structure des charges sur les performances des pneumatiques. Cette dernière doit permettre de répondre à des problématiques rencontrées en ingénierie telles que la résistance à l'usure, l'adhérence, ou la résistance au roulement.De plus, dans le but d'atteindre des informations supplémentaires quant aux interactions entre le caoutchouc et la silice, nous avons mis au point un protocole expérimental permettant de formuler des échantillons dits « modèles » renforcés avec une silice colloïdale. Cette dernière étant beaucoup mieux définie d'un point de vue géométrique, son analyse structurale est grandement facilitée rendant possible l'étude des potentiels mis en jeu pendant la production des nanocomposites. / In this thesis, we study nanocomposite materials made of non vulcanized rubber (styrene-butadien copolymer “SBR”) reinforced by highly dispersible silica nanofillers. In order to identify physico-chemical mechanisms responsible for such a reinforcement and being able to optimize it, we must understand existing correlations between the material macroscopic properties and the multi-scale structure of the filler.For this purpose, a wide campaign of small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) and electronic microscopy experiments have been performed. Coupling this data with Monte-Carlo simulations led to the emergence of a concept describing the silica morphology: A branched tridimensional network built up from aggregates (radius  50 nm) made of nanoparticles (radius  10 nm) spreading accross the whole sample.The analysis of the reinforcement in nanocomposites is based on rheometry and dynamic mechanical analysis. Other techniques like dielectric spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance, thermogravimetric analysis or infra-red spectrometry contributed as well to fully characterize these materials, particularly to probe the SBR chains dynamic at the interface with the filler.In order to reveal the correlations between structure and properties, we systematically described the impact of key parameters such as filler fraction, polymer grafting or the chain molar mass on the silica morphology (aggregates size, …) as well as on the mechanical behavior (elastic modulous, …) of the composites. This work allowed identifying the polymer grafting density as the parameter defining the filler structure and playing a significant role on the reinforcement.This thesis, firmly focused on fundamental comprehension, contributes to the development of a general law describing the effect of the filler structure on the performance of tires. The latter must provide answers to engineering issues concerning wear resistance, wet grip or rolling resistance.Moreover, in order to obtain additional information regarding the rubber-silica interactions, we developed an experimental process allowing the production of “model” systems reinforced with colloidal silica. The use of such filler, very well defined in terms of size and shape, makes much easier the structural analysis giving the opportunity to investigate deeper the effective potential between the two phases during the composite production.

Este trabalho consistiu numa avaliação, sob um ponto de vista físico, da aplicabilidade da sílica mesoporosa ordenada tipo SBA-15 como adjuvante imunológico. Inicialmente foi estudado o método de preparação e reprodutibilidade das propriedades do material, condição necessária para a síntese de grandes quantidades (N 100g). Mostrou-se que a calcinação em vácuo, comparada com o processo em N2 e ar, resulta em material com estrutura mesoporosa mais bem ordenada. Para aplicações biológicas foi analisado o potencial de encapsulação de antígerios no material, através de estudos de incorporação de Albumina Bovina (BSA) e vacina contra Hepatite A. Foi observada uma incorporação bem-sucedida de BSA na sílica, com essa proteína alojando-se dentro da estrutura de poros. Resultado semelhante foi observado para a vacina contra hepatite A. O processo mais eficiente de incorporação foi determinado para uma mistura em repouso e seca através de evaporação. A aplicabilidade da sílica como adjuvante para uso animal foi avaliada através de análises, pelo método PIXE, da acumulação do material no organismo de camundongos. A sílica foi administrada a camundongos Swiss por via oral e intra-muscular, e o teor de silício em diferentes órgáos foi comparado aos teores em um grupo controle. Foi detectada a presença de sílica em determinados órgãos dos camundongos, cuja eliminação total se processa num período de 70 dias. Além disso, em testes toxicológicos realizados no Instituto Butantan, a sílica mostrou-se eficaz na indução de resposta humoral e atóxica. / This work consisted of an evaluation, from a physical standpoint, of the applicability of SB.4-15 type ordered rnesoporous silica as an inmunological adjuvant. The method of preparation and reproducibility of the material properties were initially studied. Those conditions are necessary to synthesize large quantities of the material (N 100g). Vacuum calcination, whem compared to the process executed in A5 and air, results in a better ordered mesoporous structure. For biological applications, the potential to encapsulate antigens in the material was analyzed through studies of incorporation of Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA) and vaccine for Hepatitis A. A successful incorporation of BSA in the silica was observed, with that protein being lodged inside the porous structure. A similar result was obtained for the vaccine for Hepatitis A. The most efficient incorporation process was determined by keeping the solution at rest and drying it through evaporation. The applicability of silica as an immunological adjuvant for animal use was evaluated through PIXE analyses of the silicon accumulation in mice\'s organs. Silica was administrated to Swiss mice through oral and intramuscular ways and the silicon content of different organs was compared to the figures of the control group. The silica´s presence was detected on certain organs, and it was completely eliminated after 70 days. Besides that, toxicological studies accomplished at the Butantan Institute showed that the silica is efficient for inductíon of humoral response and it is non-toxic.

Nanomedicine is one of the most promising fields in nanotechnology nowadays. The use of nanoparticles as carriers aims to improve efficiency of drugs that possess low solubility in aqueous environment (very hydrophobic molecules) or that have a lot of undesired side effects. In this way, nanoparticles offer both a protection for the molecules and a carrying vehicle. On this ground, cubosomes are nanoparticles capable of storing both hydrophilic and hydrophobic molecules within its structure, in addition, cubosomes have approximately 50% hydrophilic and hydrophobic areas. Therefore, they can carry much more molecules than liposomes for instance. In particular, cubosomes are quite easy to produce due to its base product, lipids (like monoolein (GMO) or phytantriol (PHY)) that self-assembly in water media. In this project, both lipids were chosen to produce the cubosomes from well-established protocols in literature. A model drug, miletofsine (MILT), was chosen to study the interaction of such nanosystem with a guest molecule. GMO cubosomes revealed to have Im3m crystallographic symmetry and lattice parameter 15.3(7) nm, particles presented sizes 300(8) nm and moderate polydispersion 0.160(20). TEM revealed squared particles with sizes ~350 nm, cryo-EM presented particles with internal structure and varied size (from 200 to > 500 nm). From FFT analysis, the calculated lattice parameter remained in the order of ~10 nm compatible with SAXS measurements. MILT loading into cubosomes was possible up to 4% w/w without loss of cubosomes structure. For 5% w/w MILT, the nanoparticles were already loosing their crystalline structure, as evidenced by cryo-EM. TEM analysis reveals that as more MILT is loaded into the cubosomes, their sizes increased. For sample 1.5% w/w MILT cryo-EM presents nanoparticles with organized internal structure and an envelope (hypothesized to be a polymer coating) in its surface. Calculated lattice parameters are in the order of ~10 nm. Myverol (Myv) is a commercial mixture that contains ~60% GMO, in this project it was proposed a bottom up protocol for Myv-based cubosomes. The production of these nanoparticles also revealed, by SAXS, Im3m symmetry and lattice parameter 12.30(12) nm. DLS revealed particle size 280(5) nm and moderate polydispersion 0.115(52). TEM shows square and cubic nanoparticles with sizes ~500 nm. MILT loading into Myv-cubosomes revealed that the drug interacts with the nanoparticle by enlarging their lattice parameter as more MILT is loaded (up to 4% w/w). Curiously, for some MILT concentrations the presence of other unknown cubic structures was evidenced by SAXS. TEM revealed nanoparticles with huge polydispersion, with sizes raging from 200 nm to 2 µm. PHY based cubosomes were successfully reproduced by the chosen protocol, in both water, PBS buffer and 2.25% glycerol medium. SAXS revealed crystallographic structure Pn3m and lattice parameter 6.74(04) nm. DLS measured sizes ~450 nm and moderate polydispersion 0.161(10). NTA measurements were consistent with DLS, revealing a broad size distribution and total particle concentration of ~1016 particles/mL for each sample. TEM revealed square and rounder particles in varied size. Cryo-EM micrographs presented particles with internal structure and varied size confirming moderate polydispersion. The FFT analysis revealed calculated lattice parameters ~6.5 nm, compatible with SAXS data. Samples were submitted to lyophilization and found that after re-hydration they still hold the same characteristics (morphology, size) as the original sample. Extrusion was also performed in order to improve polydispersion and control particle size, again cubosomes held their internal structure after the process, diminishing their sizes and improving monodispersion. MILT was loaded into cubosomes via co-solubilization and addition after the nanoparticles were formed. Up to 5% w/w the cubosomes incorporated MILT without loss of crystallographic structure, but at 10%, 15% and 20% w/w, the drug provoked phase change for Im3m symmetry. At the lower concentrations, MILT enlarged the lattice parameter of cubosomes and it was hypothesized that MILT inserted itself into the bilayer of the nanoparticles. DLS reveales that the drug does not change particle size or polydispersion. TEM revealed square and rounder particles in sizes slightly bigger than DLS. For sample 4% w/w, Cryo-EM presented particles with internal structure and calculated lattice parameter ~7 nm compatible with SAXS measurements for this sample. Co-solubilization and addition after nanoparticle preparation proved out to have the same effect on cubosomes loaded with MILT. All samples were submitted to higher temperatures to investigate phase change, based on phase diagram of the lipid. It was found that for the blank samples at 65 °C the cubosomes suffer phase change for isotropic phase L2, when MILT is loaded into the nanoparticles this phase change does not happen. DLS revealed also that at higher temperatures, particle size does not change, neither polydispersion. Finally, cubosomes proved to be remarkable nanoparticles that hold their physico-chemical characteristics even when submitted to extreme environments (lyophylization, extrusion and higher temperatures.) / Nanomedicina é o campo de estudo mais promissor dentro da nanotecnologia atualmente. O uso de nanopartículas visa melhorar a eficiência de fármacos que possuem baixa solubilidade em meios aquosos (moléculas muito hidrofóbicas) ou que possuem muitos efeitos colaterais indesejados. Neste contexto, as nanopartículas oferecem proteção e veículo para tais moléculas. Para isso, cubossomos são nanopartículas capazes de encapsular tanto as moléculas hidrofóbicas como as hidrofílicas em sua estrutura. Cubossomos também apresentam aproximadamente 50% de áreas hidrofílica e hidrofóbica, sendo capaz de encapsular grandes quantidades de moléculas teóricamente. Particularmente, cubossomos são nanopartículas de fácil produção devido à sua matéria prima serem lipídios (por exemplo, monoleína (GMO) ou fitantriol (PHY)) que se auto associam em meio aquoso. Neste projeto, os dois lipídios citados foram escolhidos para a produção dos cubossomos empregando-se protocolos bem estabelecidos da literatura. Uma fármaco modelo, miltefosina (MILT), foi escolhida para o estudo da interação com as nanopartículas. Cubossomos de monoleína (GMO) revelaram simetria cristalográfica Im3m e parâmetro de rede de 15.3(7) nm, as nanopartículas apresentaram tamanhos em torno de 300(8) nm e PDI 0.160(20). MET revelou partículas quadradas com tamanhos ~350 nm e a crio microscopia mostrou partículas com estrutura interna bem definida e tamanhos variados (200 a 500 nm), os parâmetros de rede calculados se mostraram da ordem de ~10 nm, compatíveis com as medidas de SAXS. O encapsulamento da MILT nos cubossomos foi possível até 4% w/w sem perda de morfologia. Para 5% w/w MILT as nanopartículas já apresentavam perda de cristalinidade na sua estrutura, evidenciado por crio microscopia. Análise por MET revelou que quanto mais MILT era encapsulada nos cubossomos, maiores ficaram as nanopartículas. Com a amostra de 1.5% w/w foi feita a crio microscopia, que revelou cubossomos com estrutura interna bem definida e um envelope (possivelmente formado pelo polímero) na sua superfície. Os parâmetros de rede calculados foram da ordem de ~10 nm também. O myverol (Myv) é uma mistura comercial que contém aproximadamente 60% de GMO, e neste projeto foi proposto um protocolo bottom up para cubossomos feitos de Myv. A produção dessas nanopartículas também revelou, por SAXS, estrutura cristalográfica Im3m e um parâmetro de rede de 12.30(12) nm. DLS apresentou partículas de tamanho 280(5) nm e polidispersão moderada 0.115(52). MET mostrou partículas quadradas e cúbicas com tamanhos de ~500 nm. O encapsulamento da MILT revelou que o fármaco interage com os cubossomos aumentando seu parâmetro de rede, até uma concentração de 4% w/w. Curiosamente, para algumas concentrações de MILT havia presença de outras estruturas evidenciadas por SAXS. MET revelou nanopartículas com muita polidispersão, com tamanhos variando entre 200 nm e 2 µm. Cubossomos de PHY foram reproduzidos com sucesso a partir do protocolo escolhido, em meios aquoso, tampão PBS e 2.25% glicerol. SAXS revelou nanopartículas com simetria cristalográfica Pn3m e parâmetro de rede 6.74(04) nm. Por DLS, o tamanho das partículas foi de ~450 nm e polidispersão moderada 0.161(10). Medidas de NTA foram consistentes com DLS, mostrando uma larga distribuição de tamanhos e concentração de partículas ~1016 partículas/mL. MET revelou cubossomos quadrados e mais arredondados de tamanhos variados. Criomicroscopia apresentou partículas com estrutura interna bem definida, tamanhos variados (confirmando a polidispersão) e parâmetro de rede calculado em ~6.5 nm, compatível com medidas de SAXS. Essas amostras também foram submetidas a liofilização e descobriu-se que mesmo depois da re-hidratação, as partículas ainda mantiveram as mesmas características da amostra original. A extrusão também foi feita com o objetivo de melhorar a polidispersão e controlar o tamanho das partículas, novamente, os cubossomos demonstraram manter sua estrutura interna depois desse processo, diminuindo seus tamanhos e diminuindo a polidispersão dos sistema. MILT foi encapsulada de duas formas: passiva (co-solubilização) e ativa (adição depois que as nanopartículas foram formadas). Com até 5% w/w de MILT incorporada, os cubossomos mantiveram sua estrutura cristalográfica, porém em concentrações de 10%, 15% e 20% w/w, o fármaco provocou transição de fase para simetria Im3m. Em baixas concentrações, MILT aumentou os parâmetros de rede dos cubossomos e a hipótese levantada foi que a droga se insere na bicamada lipídica das nanopartículas. DLS revelou que MILT não altera o tamanho das partículas nem sua polidispersão. MET revelou partículas quadradas e arredondadas com tamanhos maiores que os medidos por DLS. Para a amostra 4% w/w, a crio microscopia foi realizada e as partículas encontradas apresentaram estrutura interna e parâmetro de rede calculado ~7 nm, compatível com medidas de SAXS. Co-solubilização e adição depois do preparo se mostraram equivalentes para o encapsulamento da MILT. Todas as amostras também foram submetidas a um estudo de temperaturas para investigar transições de fase, baseando-se nos diagramas de fase dos lipídios. Foi descoberto que os cubossomos, sem a droga, a 65 °C sofrem transição para a fase isotrópica L2 e quando MILT está incorporada essa transição não acontece. DLS também revelou que as partículas não têm seus tamanhos alterados com o aumento de temperatura. Por fim, cubossomos mostraram ser excepcionais conseguindo manter suas características físico-químicas mesmo quando submetidos a ambientes extremos, como a liofilização, a extrusão e a altas temperaturas.

Nanomedicine is one of the most promising fields in nanotechnology nowadays. The use of nanoparticles as carriers aims to improve efficiency of drugs that possess low solubility in aqueous environment (very hydrophobic molecules) or that have a lot of undesired side effects. In this way, nanoparticles offer both a protection for the molecules and a carrying vehicle. On this ground, cubosomes are nanoparticles capable of storing both hydrophilic and hydrophobic molecules within its structure, in addition, cubosomes have approximately 50% hydrophilic and hydrophobic areas. Therefore, they can carry much more molecules than liposomes for instance. In particular, cubosomes are quite easy to produce due to its base product, lipids (like monoolein (GMO) or phytantriol (PHY)) that self-assembly in water media. In this project, both lipids were chosen to produce the cubosomes from well-established protocols in literature. A model drug, miletofsine (MILT), was chosen to study the interaction of such nanosystem with a guest molecule. GMO cubosomes revealed to have Im3m crystallographic symmetry and lattice parameter 15.3(7) nm, particles presented sizes 300(8) nm and moderate polydispersion 0.160(20). TEM revealed squared particles with sizes ~350 nm, cryo-EM presented particles with internal structure and varied size (from 200 to > 500 nm). From FFT analysis, the calculated lattice parameter remained in the order of ~10 nm compatible with SAXS measurements. MILT loading into cubosomes was possible up to 4% w/w without loss of cubosomes structure. For 5% w/w MILT, the nanoparticles were already loosing their crystalline structure, as evidenced by cryo-EM. TEM analysis reveals that as more MILT is loaded into the cubosomes, their sizes increased. For sample 1.5% w/w MILT cryo-EM presents nanoparticles with organized internal structure and an envelope (hypothesized to be a polymer coating) in its surface. Calculated lattice parameters are in the order of ~10 nm. Myverol (Myv) is a commercial mixture that contains ~60% GMO, in this project it was proposed a bottom up protocol for Myv-based cubosomes. The production of these nanoparticles also revealed, by SAXS, Im3m symmetry and lattice parameter 12.30(12) nm. DLS revealed particle size 280(5) nm and moderate polydispersion 0.115(52). TEM shows square and cubic nanoparticles with sizes ~500 nm. MILT loading into Myv-cubosomes revealed that the drug interacts with the nanoparticle by enlarging their lattice parameter as more MILT is loaded (up to 4% w/w). Curiously, for some MILT concentrations the presence of other unknown cubic structures was evidenced by SAXS. TEM revealed nanoparticles with huge polydispersion, with sizes raging from 200 nm to 2 µm. PHY based cubosomes were successfully reproduced by the chosen protocol, in both water, PBS buffer and 2.25% glycerol medium. SAXS revealed crystallographic structure Pn3m and lattice parameter 6.74(04) nm. DLS measured sizes ~450 nm and moderate polydispersion 0.161(10). NTA measurements were consistent with DLS, revealing a broad size distribution and total particle concentration of ~1016 particles/mL for each sample. TEM revealed square and rounder particles in varied size. Cryo-EM micrographs presented particles with internal structure and varied size confirming moderate polydispersion. The FFT analysis revealed calculated lattice parameters ~6.5 nm, compatible with SAXS data. Samples were submitted to lyophilization and found that after re-hydration they still hold the same characteristics (morphology, size) as the original sample. Extrusion was also performed in order to improve polydispersion and control particle size, again cubosomes held their internal structure after the process, diminishing their sizes and improving monodispersion. MILT was loaded into cubosomes via co-solubilization and addition after the nanoparticles were formed. Up to 5% w/w the cubosomes incorporated MILT without loss of crystallographic structure, but at 10%, 15% and 20% w/w, the drug provoked phase change for Im3m symmetry. At the lower concentrations, MILT enlarged the lattice parameter of cubosomes and it was hypothesized that MILT inserted itself into the bilayer of the nanoparticles. DLS reveales that the drug does not change particle size or polydispersion. TEM revealed square and rounder particles in sizes slightly bigger than DLS. For sample 4% w/w, Cryo-EM presented particles with internal structure and calculated lattice parameter ~7 nm compatible with SAXS measurements for this sample. Co-solubilization and addition after nanoparticle preparation proved out to have the same effect on cubosomes loaded with MILT. All samples were submitted to higher temperatures to investigate phase change, based on phase diagram of the lipid. It was found that for the blank samples at 65 °C the cubosomes suffer phase change for isotropic phase L2, when MILT is loaded into the nanoparticles this phase change does not happen. DLS revealed also that at higher temperatures, particle size does not change, neither polydispersion. Finally, cubosomes proved to be remarkable nanoparticles that hold their physico-chemical characteristics even when submitted to extreme environments (lyophylization, extrusion and higher temperatures.) / Nanomedicina é o campo de estudo mais promissor dentro da nanotecnologia atualmente. O uso de nanopartículas visa melhorar a eficiência de fármacos que possuem baixa solubilidade em meios aquosos (moléculas muito hidrofóbicas) ou que possuem muitos efeitos colaterais indesejados. Neste contexto, as nanopartículas oferecem proteção e veículo para tais moléculas. Para isso, cubossomos são nanopartículas capazes de encapsular tanto as moléculas hidrofóbicas como as hidrofílicas em sua estrutura. Cubossomos também apresentam aproximadamente 50% de áreas hidrofílica e hidrofóbica, sendo capaz de encapsular grandes quantidades de moléculas teóricamente. Particularmente, cubossomos são nanopartículas de fácil produção devido à sua matéria prima serem lipídios (por exemplo, monoleína (GMO) ou fitantriol (PHY)) que se auto associam em meio aquoso. Neste projeto, os dois lipídios citados foram escolhidos para a produção dos cubossomos empregando-se protocolos bem estabelecidos da literatura. Uma fármaco modelo, miltefosina (MILT), foi escolhida para o estudo da interação com as nanopartículas. Cubossomos de monoleína (GMO) revelaram simetria cristalográfica Im3m e parâmetro de rede de 15.3(7) nm, as nanopartículas apresentaram tamanhos em torno de 300(8) nm e PDI 0.160(20). MET revelou partículas quadradas com tamanhos ~350 nm e a crio microscopia mostrou partículas com estrutura interna bem definida e tamanhos variados (200 a 500 nm), os parâmetros de rede calculados se mostraram da ordem de ~10 nm, compatíveis com as medidas de SAXS. O encapsulamento da MILT nos cubossomos foi possível até 4% w/w sem perda de morfologia. Para 5% w/w MILT as nanopartículas já apresentavam perda de cristalinidade na sua estrutura, evidenciado por crio microscopia. Análise por MET revelou que quanto mais MILT era encapsulada nos cubossomos, maiores ficaram as nanopartículas. Com a amostra de 1.5% w/w foi feita a crio microscopia, que revelou cubossomos com estrutura interna bem definida e um envelope (possivelmente formado pelo polímero) na sua superfície. Os parâmetros de rede calculados foram da ordem de ~10 nm também. O myverol (Myv) é uma mistura comercial que contém aproximadamente 60% de GMO, e neste projeto foi proposto um protocolo bottom up para cubossomos feitos de Myv. A produção dessas nanopartículas também revelou, por SAXS, estrutura cristalográfica Im3m e um parâmetro de rede de 12.30(12) nm. DLS apresentou partículas de tamanho 280(5) nm e polidispersão moderada 0.115(52). MET mostrou partículas quadradas e cúbicas com tamanhos de ~500 nm. O encapsulamento da MILT revelou que o fármaco interage com os cubossomos aumentando seu parâmetro de rede, até uma concentração de 4% w/w. Curiosamente, para algumas concentrações de MILT havia presença de outras estruturas evidenciadas por SAXS. MET revelou nanopartículas com muita polidispersão, com tamanhos variando entre 200 nm e 2 µm. Cubossomos de PHY foram reproduzidos com sucesso a partir do protocolo escolhido, em meios aquoso, tampão PBS e 2.25% glicerol. SAXS revelou nanopartículas com simetria cristalográfica Pn3m e parâmetro de rede 6.74(04) nm. Por DLS, o tamanho das partículas foi de ~450 nm e polidispersão moderada 0.161(10). Medidas de NTA foram consistentes com DLS, mostrando uma larga distribuição de tamanhos e concentração de partículas ~1016 partículas/mL. MET revelou cubossomos quadrados e mais arredondados de tamanhos variados. Criomicroscopia apresentou partículas com estrutura interna bem definida, tamanhos variados (confirmando a polidispersão) e parâmetro de rede calculado em ~6.5 nm, compatível com medidas de SAXS. Essas amostras também foram submetidas a liofilização e descobriu-se que mesmo depois da re-hidratação, as partículas ainda mantiveram as mesmas características da amostra original. A extrusão também foi feita com o objetivo de melhorar a polidispersão e controlar o tamanho das partículas, novamente, os cubossomos demonstraram manter sua estrutura interna depois desse processo, diminuindo seus tamanhos e diminuindo a polidispersão dos sistema. MILT foi encapsulada de duas formas: passiva (co-solubilização) e ativa (adição depois que as nanopartículas foram formadas). Com até 5% w/w de MILT incorporada, os cubossomos mantiveram sua estrutura cristalográfica, porém em concentrações de 10%, 15% e 20% w/w, o fármaco provocou transição de fase para simetria Im3m. Em baixas concentrações, MILT aumentou os parâmetros de rede dos cubossomos e a hipótese levantada foi que a droga se insere na bicamada lipídica das nanopartículas. DLS revelou que MILT não altera o tamanho das partículas nem sua polidispersão. MET revelou partículas quadradas e arredondadas com tamanhos maiores que os medidos por DLS. Para a amostra 4% w/w, a crio microscopia foi realizada e as partículas encontradas apresentaram estrutura interna e parâmetro de rede calculado ~7 nm, compatível com medidas de SAXS. Co-solubilização e adição depois do preparo se mostraram equivalentes para o encapsulamento da MILT. Todas as amostras também foram submetidas a um estudo de temperaturas para investigar transições de fase, baseando-se nos diagramas de fase dos lipídios. Foi descoberto que os cubossomos, sem a droga, a 65 °C sofrem transição para a fase isotrópica L2 e quando MILT está incorporada essa transição não acontece. DLS também revelou que as partículas não têm seus tamanhos alterados com o aumento de temperatura. Por fim, cubossomos mostraram ser excepcionais conseguindo manter suas características físico-químicas mesmo quando submetidos a ambientes extremos, como a liofilização, a extrusão e a altas temperaturas.

Cette thèse porte sur l’élaboration de nanocomposites anisotropes à base de nanofils de cobalt/polymères pour la fabrication d’aimants permanents qui ne contiennent pas de terres rares et l’optimisation des propriétés magnétiques de ces matériaux composites. La préparation de nanofils de cobalt mono-domaines (R~6-10 nm et L~250-350 nm) a été réalisée par voie thermique conventionnelle et par voie micro-onde. Des films de composites Co/polymère alignés ont été élaborés avec de très bonnes propriétés magnétiques (μ0Hc=0.75T, Mr/Ms=0.92). Le (BH)max est de 160 kJ/m3 qui est dans la gamme des aimants SmCo (BHmax~ 120-200 kJ/m3). Les techniques de diffusion de neutrons et de rayons-X aux petits angles (DNPA et DXPA) ont été utilisées pour la caractérisation des dispersions et des systèmes anisotropes. Les fils dans le chloroforme sont mieux dispersés par rapport aux autres solvants et forment des agrégats moins gros. Pour les films de composites, l’agrégation des nanofils est relativement plus dense dans le polystyrène que dans le poly(vinyl pyrrolidone). La qualité de l’alignement est proportionnelle à l’amplitude du champ appliqué même pour des champs très élevés. Cependant, un meilleur alignement ne conduit pas automatiquement à une meilleure coercivité. Les interactions entre des nanofils ont été caractérisées par Henkel plots. Les valeurs de ΔM sont faibles (ΔM<-0.2). En outre, la DNPA polarisée a permis de suivre le renversement magnétique à l’échelle nanométrique. Le champ coercitif Hc est défini par le renversement global de gros paquets de fils. Au-delà de Hc, il n’y a plus que des processus de retournements de fils individuels. Afin d’optimiser le Hc, l’optimisation de la microstructure (organisation des fils) est plus importante que l’optimisation des propriétés des fils individuels. / This thesis focuses on the development of nanocomposites made from anisotropic cobalt nanowires / polymer for the manufacture of permanent magnets which do not contain any rare earth and the optimization of the magnetic properties of these composite materials.The preparation of single-domain cobalt nanowires (R ~ 6-10 nm and L ~ 250-350 nm) was performed by conventional thermal route and by microwave route. The films of composite aligned Co nanowires/polymer have been elaborated with very good magnetic properties (μ0Hc = 0.75T, Mr / Ms = 0.92). The (BH)max is 160 kJ/m3 which is in the range of SmCo magnets (~ 120-200 BHmax kJ/m3). The techniques of small angles neutron and X-ray small angle scattering (SANS and SAXS) were used for the characterization of anisotropic systems and dispersions. The wires in chloroform are better dispersed compared to other solvents and form aggregates smaller. For the films of composite, the aggregation of the nanowires is relatively denser in polystyrene than in poly (vinyl pyrrolidone). The quality of alignment is proportional to the amplitude of the applied field, even for very high fields. However, a better alignment does not automatically lead to a better coercivity. The interactions between nanowires were characterized by Henkel plots. The ΔM values are pretty low (ΔM <-0.2). In addition, polarized SANS was used to track the magnetic reversal at the nanoscale. The coercive field Hc is defined by global reversal of large packets of wires. Beyond Hc, there are more processes than reversals of individual wires. To optimize Hc, optimizing the microstructure (organization of wires) is more important than optimizing the properties of the individual wires.

Le but principal de mon projet de thèse était de développer un instrument de mélange en vol de microgouttes pour jets d'encre synchronisés. Les microgouttes balistiques passent voir l'air peut être pensé comme des navires de réaction avec des volumes en bas à la pl-gamme. Les réactifs restent limités dans les microgouttes pendant leur trajectoire. Les effets de tondage induits de la présence murale ne jouent pas de rôle; bien que la compression mécanique de la solution pendant le processus d'éjection puisse influencer l'intégrité structurelle de protéines fragiles. J'ai exploré dans ma thèse pour la première fois la combinaison de microgouttes balistiques avec des techniques de microdiffusion stroboscopique. L'effort instrumental principal était donc de développer une installation stable avec deux jets d'encre pour étudier mélange de microgouttes en vol à ligne de lumière ID13, ESRF utilisant expériences de diffusion centrale et de diffraction de rayons X stroboscopique. J'ai utilisé ces techniques pour étudier la paraffine liquide en vol et des microgouttes de cytochrome C et la coalescence de microgouttes de cytochrome C avec des microgouttes de tampon de Na-acetate. J'ai également exécuté des expériences exploratoires de diffraction de rayons X à la ligne de lumière ID13 sur des microgouttes de paraffine solide déposés sur des surfaces et la diffraction dépendante de la température sur le solide de paraffine pour calibrer les données stroboscopiques. Des expériences statiques de diffusion centrale ont été exécutées à la ligne de lumière ID02 pour obtenir des courbes de la référence pour les états de conformation de solutions du cytochrome C .

L'extrusion est un procédé de mise en forme très répandu dans des industries variées telles que la plasturgie, la métallurgie, les céramiques, ou encore l'industrie agroalimentaire. Les matériaux doivent cependant être soumis à des niveaux de pression et de contrainte élevés pour être extrudés à des débits suffisants.<br />La présente thèse a pour objectif de mieux connaître l'influence des paramètres de pression et contrainte sur les propriétés des polymères et la stabilité de leurs écoulements, et ce en relation avec leur structure mésoscopique.<br />Les effets de la pression ont été étudiés sur quatre polyéthylènes (PE) de structures différentes. D'abord, les conditions expérimentales précises ont été définies pour isoler les effets de la pression des effets de la température et pour différencier les écoulements stables ou instables. Nos résultats montrent que les effets de la pression sont les mêmes en cisaillement et en élongation, sauf pour l'un des PE où ils sont 30% supérieurs en cisaillement. En outre, c'est un critère de contrainte critique qui caractérise l'apparitions des instabilités viscoélastiques quelle que soit la pression moyenne.<br />Dans la deuxième partie de cette thèse, trois copolymères de la famille des SEBS montrant une séparation de phase aux échelles nanoscopiques ont été considérés. L'étude des défauts macroscopiques d'extrusion, et de la propagation de fissures surfaciques, de ces copolymères à blocs a permis d'identifier l'origine du défaut dit de « refente d'extrudat » ainsi qu'un nouveau régime d'extrusion : le « pelage continu ». Ces défauts ont été mis en relation avec la structure mésoscopique par des essais de diffusion de rayons-X aux petits angles.

Cette these s'interesse au comportement en presence d'eau de poudres de verres borosilicates de composition variable. L'originalit´e de ces travaux reside dans la complementarite<br />entre experiences et simulations num´eriques. Ils s'inscrivent plus generalement dans la problematique du comportement a long terme des verres de confinement des dechets nucleaires.<br /><br />Dans un premier temps, nous avons etudie des verres contenant uniquement un melange d'oxydes de silicium, de bore et de sodium. Les cinetiques d'alteration montrent que la vitesse et le degre final de l'alteration dependent de la teneur initiale en bore selon un mecanisme de percolation. Il a ete observe qu'une pellicule se forme a la surface du verre et que, pour certaines compositions, celle-ci est responsable d'un arret de l'extraction des especes solubles (bore et sodium). Ce < gel d'alteration > est caracterise par resonance magnetique nucleaire (RMN) et diffusion des rayons X aux petits angles (SAXS).<br /><br />D'autres elements ont ensuite ete ajoute a la composition borosilicatee initiale. Nous montrons ainsi que la presence d'oxydes de calcium, de zirconium et d'aluminium perturbe<br />fortement la vitesse et le degre final d'alteration et qu'il n'est plus possible d'interpreter le comportement de ces verres par la seule percolation du bore. En parallele, nous avons developpe un modele theorique, base sur la dissolution-recondensation des especes peu solubles, pour decrire l'alteration par l'eau des verres borosilicates. L'utilisation de simulations num´eriques de type Monte Carlo sur reseau teste<br />les concepts de percolation du sous-reseau de bore, de reactivite locale des elements peu solubles, ainsi que de murissement de la texture poreuse du gel. Ce modele est valide explicitement<br />sur les verres a trois oxydes (Si, B et Na) par confrontation directe avec les experiences. Il est ensuite etendu au cas des verres de composition plus complexe (verres au zirconium et a l'aluminium). Au moyen d'hypotheses simples, nous parvenons alors a interpreter qualitativement le comportement paradoxal de ces verres a quatre oxydes.<br /><br />Ces travaux montrent principalement qu'il est possible d'expliquer le comportement en presence d'eau d'un verre de composition donnee par la competition entre deux mecanismes<br />primordiaux, qui sont l'extraction des elements solubles et la reconstruction du gel d'alteration.

Des travaux de recherche tentent aujourd'hui de prédire les propriétés mécaniques des polymères semi-cristallins induites par leur mise en forme à l'aide de la mécanique des milieux hétérogènes. Mais l'utilisation de ces modèles micromécaniques nécessite une description dimensionnelle de la morphologie cristalline, aussi bien au niveau lamellaire qu'à l'échelle supérieure des macrostructures cristallines induites. Dans ce contexte scientifique, ce travail de thèse s'est donné pour objectif de caractériser finement les différentes morphologies que l'on peut rencontrer dans l'épaisseur des polypropylène et polyéthylène linéaire injectés, et de déterminer l'influence de certaines conditions de mise en œuvre sur ces morphologies. Les fonctions d'orientation des différents axes cristallographiques ont été déterminées par dichroïsme infrarouge et à partir de figures de pôle obtenues par WAXS sous anode tournante et sous microfaisceau synchrotron. La répartition des amas lamellaires et leurs dimensions ont été déterminées par SAXS. Finalement, la taille des structures cristallines a été caractérisée par microscopie optique en lumière polarisée. L'ensemble des résultats a été utilisé pour générer des modèles morphologiques à travers l'épaisseur des plaques injectées. Des structures morphologiques complexes, induites par la déformation, ont été mis en évidence: des shish-kebabs avec des lamelles filles qui croissent de façon épitaxiale pour le PP, et avec des lamelles torsadées à droites pour le PEhd. Plus généralement, l'orientation de la phase amorphe est faible et l'anisotropie des propriétés mécaniques des polyoléfines est gouvernée par l'orientation élevée de la phase cristalline. L'épaisseur des plaques et la masse molaire du polymère ont une forte influence sur l'orientation moléculaire et les morphologies cristallines obtenues, alors que la vitesse d'injection détermine l'épaisseur des différentes couches morphologiques au travers de l'épaisseur, sans modifier sensiblement ni les niveaux d'orientation moléculaire ni les dimensions lamellaires.