No description available.

Os eletrocatalisadores de PtSn/C-ITO foram preparados pelo método de redução via borohidreto de sódio com uma carga metálica de 20% em massa suportados em carbono Vulcan XC72 e óxidos de estanho e índio (ITO) nas seguintes composições; 50:50, 70:30 e 90:10. Os eletrocatalisadores foram submetidos a análises de caracterização por difração de raios-x (DRX), microscopia de transmissão eletrônica (MET), espectroscopia de energia dispersiva de raios x (EDX) e análises eletroquímicas pelas técnicas de voltametria cíclica e de amperometria para os estudos da oxidação eletroquímica em etanol. Nas técnicas eletroquímicas foi utilizado o eletrodo de camada fina porosa onde os eletrocatalisadores foram testados tanto no meio ácido quanto no meio alcalino. Experimentos em célula unitária alimentadas diretamente por etanol foram testados simulando condições reais de operação. As análises eletroquímicas e de caracterização física em meio ácido permitiram comparar o desempenho e estabilidades dos eletrocatalisadores em estudo e também demonstraram os benefícios da adição do estanho e do ITO, tendo como destaque o eletrocatalisador de PtSn/C-ITO 70:30. Em meio alcalino o eletrocatalisador PtSn/C-ITO 50:50 demonstrou ter o melhor desempenho nas análises de voltametria cíclica e amperometria, entretanto, a mesma eficácia não ocorreu nos experimentos em célula unitária o que leva a crer que em meio alcalino o mecanismo de oxidação do etanol sob temperatura e outros parâmetros reais pertinentes à operação da célula precisam ser mudados e/ou estudados. / PtSn /C-ITO electrocatalysts were prepared by the sodium borohydride reduction method with 20% mass metallic load supported on Vulcan XC72 carbon and tin and indium oxides (ITO) in the following compositions; 50:50, 70:30 and 90:10. The electrocatalysts were subjected to x-ray diffraction characterization (XRD), transmission electron microscope (TEM), energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDX) and electrochemical analyzes using cyclic voltammetry and amperometric techniques for studies of ethanol electrochemical oxidation. In the electrochemical techniques the thin porous coating was used where the electrocatalysts were tested in both the acidic and alkaline media. Experiments in unit cell fed directly by ethanol were tested simulating real operating conditions. The electrochemical and physical characterization analyzes in acid medium allowed to compare the performance and stabilities of the electrocatalysts under study and also demonstrated the benefits of the addition of tin and ITO, with emphasis at PtSn/C-ITO 70:30 electrocatalyst. In alkaline media the PtSn/C-ITO 50:50 electrocatalyst demonstrated the best performance in the tests of cyclic voltammetry and amperometry, however, the same efficiency did not happen in the unit cell tests which leads to believe that in alkaline medium the oxidation mechanism of ethanol under temperature and other actual pertinent parameters to cell operation need to be changed and/or studied.

O desenvolvimento de catalisadores eficientes para a reação de oxidação de etanol em células a combustível requer a compreensão da influência das propriedades dos materiais (composição e cristalinidade) na atividade catalítica. Assim, foi trabalhado com materiais a base de Pt-Sn tratados termicamente em atmosfera de hidrogênio e argônio com ou sem recobrimentos de camada protetora de MgO e com catalisadores à base de Pt, Sn e Nd. Para o sistema Pt-Sn/C tratados termicamente, as caracterizações físicas mostraram que foi possível sintetizar nanopartículas suportadas sem aglomerações com diferentes fases cristalinas e graus de liga. A utilização de MgO como protetor no tratamento térmico foi eficiente e não permitiu grande variação do tamanho das nanopartículas de Pt-Sn. Os materiais Pt-Sn/C apresentaram perfis voltamétricos similares em meio ácido. Também apresentaram melhor desempenho para a reação de oxidação de CO adsorvido quando comparado ao catalisador comercial, tanto antes e após o teste de envelhecimento acelerado (TEA). As medidas após o TEA dos materiais tratados com hidrogênio apresentaram diferenças no perfil da varredura linear da oxidação de CO adsorvido, o que indica mudança na estrutura superficial desses catalisadores possivelmente devido à lixiviação do metal ou ao aumento do tamanho de partícula. Também foi observado que o catalisador com menor quantidade de Sn na fase liga apresentou a melhor estabilidade para reação de oxidação de etanol. Os resultados do sistema de catalisadores Pt-Sn e/ou Nd, mostraram que houve uma melhora da oxidação de etanol para os catalisadores que contem Nd após o TEA, possivelmente as ciclagens lixiviam Nd, o que evita a coalescência das partículas metálicas. Os dados de FTIR indicam que os catalisadores que contem Sn apresentam as bandas de ácido acético mais intensas. Já os catalisadores que contém Nd apresentaram bandas de CO adsorvido menos intensas, indicando uma adsorção de CO mais fraca. Também foi observado que o catalisador trimetálico Pt-Sn-Nd/C apresentou o melhor desempenho em teste de célula unitária. / The development of efficient catalyst to ethanol oxidation reaction in fuel cells requires the comprehension of the influence of material proprerties (composition and crystallinity) on the catalytic activity. Herein, PtSn-based catalysts were synthesized and annealed in H2 or Ar atmosphere with and without MgO protective coating. Also, catalysts Pt, Sn and Nd-based were synthesized. The physical characterization of annealed Pt-Sn/C samples shows the formation of nanoparticles with different crystalline phases and alloy amounts with no agglomeration. The MgO coating was an efficient protector since the Pt-Sn particles did not grown during annealing. All the Pt-Sn/C catalysts present similar voltammetric profile in acidic electrolytic and shows better catalytic activity for CO oxidation than commercial Pt, before and after accelerated aging test (AAT). Differences in the linear sweep profile during CO oxidation before AAT indicate changes in the surface structure of catalysts annealed in H2 atmosphere, which can be explained by metal dissolution or particles growth. Studies also show catalysts with lower Sn amount in alloy phase are more stable for ethanol oxidation. The results of Pt-Sn and/or Nd catalysts system show improvement in the ethanol oxidation activity by Nd-based catalysts before AAT. It is possible that the cycling can dissolve Nd, preventing metals particles coalescence. Sn-based catalysts show strong acetic acid infrared absorption bands in FTIRAS analyses. CO bands appear less intense for Nd-based catalysts, which indicates a weak CO adsorption on these materials. In addition, the trimetallic Pt-Sn-Nd/C catalyst presents the best performance in unitary cell tests.

The orientation relationship and interfaces of PtSn4 and PtSn with the Pt (001) and (111) surfaces have been studied with transmission electron microscopy. Pt was evaporated onto the NaCl (001) and (111) surfaces to form epitaxial Pt thin films and Sn was evaporated onto the Pt films at different temperature to form PtSn4 and PtSn. Pt was evaporated onto the NaCl (001) and (111) surfaces at 350 ¢J to form epitaxial Pt thin films of [001] and [111] zone axes, respectively. Some grains are in random orientation and other as ring pattern. The grain size was at about 10-20 nm. Sn was evaporated onto the Pt surface at 150 ¢J to form PtSn4 and at 200 ¢J to form PtSn. No good orientation relationships were formed on both the PtSn4/ Sn and the PtSn/ Sn interfaces. Heterogeneous nucleation theory, predicts that PtSn should form before PtSn4, but PtSn4 was observed to the first to form. The possible reasons were discussed. Keywords: PtSn4/ Sn interface, PtSn/ Sn interface, orientation relationships, thin films, evaporator, transmission electron microscopy

The long-lived fission product 126Sn (105 years) (Weast (1972)) is of substantial interest in the context of nuclear waste disposal in deep underground repositories. However, the prevalent redox state, the aqueous speciation as well as the reactions at the mineral-water interface under the expected anoxic conditions are a matter of debate. Therefore, in this PhD thesis I present work on the reactions of SnII with three Fe-bearing minerals as a function of pH, time, and SnII loading under anoxic condition with O2 level < 2 ppmv. The first mineral, goethite, contains only trivalent Fe (FeIIIOOH), the second, magnetite, contains both FeII and FeIII (FeIIFeIII2O4), and the third, mackinawite (FeIIS), contains only divalent Fe. The uptake behavior of the three mineral surfaces was investigated by batch sorption studies. Tin redox state was investigated by Sn-K X-ray absorption near-edge structure (XANES) spectroscopy, and the local, molecular structure of the expected Sn surface complexes and precipitates was studied by extended X-ray absorption fine-structure (EXAFS) spectroscopy. Selected samples were also investigated by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) to elucidate the existence and nature of secondary, Fe- and /or Sn containing solids, and by Mössbauer spectroscopy to study FeII and FeIII in the minerals. Based on the such-obtained molecular-level information, surface complexation models (SCM) were fitted to the batch sorption data to derive surface complexation constants. In the presence of the FeIII-bearing minerals magnetite and goethite, I observed a rapid uptake and oxidation of SnII to SnIV. The local structure determined by EXAFS showed two Sn-Fe distances of about 3.15 and 3.60 Å in line with edge and corner sharing arrangements between octahedrally coordinated SnIV and the Fe(O,OH)6 octahedra at the magnetite and goethite surfaces. While the respective coordination numbers suggested formation of tetradentate inner-sphere complexes between pH 3 and 9 for magnetite, bidentate inner-sphere complexes (single edge-sharing (1E) and corner-sharing (2C)) prevail at the goethite surface at pH > 3, with the relative amount of 2C increasing with Sn loading. The interfacial electron transfer between sorbed SnII and structural FeIII potentially leads to dissolution of FeII and transformation to secondary FeII/FeIII oxide minerals. There is no clear evidence to confirm the reductive dissolution in the Sn/ magnetite system, Rietveld refinement of XRD patterns, however, indicates an increase of FeII/FeIII ratio in the magnetite structure. For the Sn/goethite system, dissolved FeII increased with SnII loading at the lowest pH investigated, indicative of reductive dissolution. At pH >5, spherical and cubic particles of magnetite were observed by TEM, and their number increased with SnII loading. Based on previous finding, this secondary mineral transformation of goethite should proceed via dissolution and recrystallization. The molecular structure and oxidation state of sorbed Sn were then used to fit the batch sorption data of magnetite and goethite with SCM. The sorption data on magnetite were fit with the diffuse double layer model (DLM) employing two different complexes, the first ( = -14.97±0.35) prevailing from pH 2 to 9, and the second ( = -17.72±0.50), which forms at pH > 9 by co-adsorption of FeII, thereby increasing sorption at this high pH. The sorption data on goethite were fitted with the charge distribution–multisite complexation model (CD-MUSIC). Based on the EXAFS-derived presence of two different bidentate inner-sphere complexes ((≡FeOH)(≡Fe3O)Sn(OH)3 (1E) and (≡FeOH)2Sn(OH)3) (2C)), sorption affinity constants of 15.5 ±1.4 for the 1E complex and of 19.2 ±0.6 for the 2C complex were obtained. The model is not only able to predict sorption across the observed pH range, but also the transition from a roughly 50/50 distribution of the two complexes at 12.5 µmol/g Sn loading, to the prevalence of the 2C complex at higher loading, in line with the EXAFS data. The retention mechanism of SnII by mackinawite is significantly dependent on the solution pH, reflecting the transient changes of the mackinawite surface in the sorption process. At pH <7, SnII is retained in its original oxidation state. It forms a surface complex, which is characterized by two short (2.38 Å) Sn-S bonds, which can be interpreted as the bonds towards the S-terminated surface of mackinawite, and two longer Sn-S bonds (2.59 Å), which point most likely towards the solution phase, completing the tetragonal SnS4 innersphere sorption complex. Precipitation of SnS or formation of a solid solution with mackinawite could be excluded. At pH > 9, SnII is completely oxidized by an FeII/FeIII (hydr)oxide, most likely green rust, forming on the surface of mackinawite. Six O atoms at 2.04 Å and 6 Fe atoms at 3.29 Å demonstrate a structural incorporation by green rust, where SnIV substitutes for Fe in the crystal structure. The transition between SnII and SnIV and between sulfur and oxygen coordination takes place between pH 7 and 8, in accordance with the transition from the mackinawite stability field to more oxidized Fe-bearing minerals. The uptake processes of SnII by mackinawite are largely in line with the uptake processes of divalent cations of other soft Lewis-acid metals like Cd, Hg and Pb. Very different Sn retention mechanisms were hence active, including oxidation to SnIV and formation of tetradentate and bidentate surface complexes of the SnIV hydroxo moieties on goethite and magnetite, and in the case of mackinawite a SnII sulfide species forming a bidentate surface complex at low pH, and structural incorporation of SnIV by an oxidation product, green rust, at high pH. In all three mineral systems and largely independent on the retention mechanisms, inorganic SnII was strongly retained, with Rd values always exceeding 5, across the relatively wide pH range relevant for the near and far-field of nuclear waste respositories. For the goethite and magnetite systems, the retention could be well modeled with surface complexation models based on the molecular structural data. This is an important contribution to the safety case for future nuclear waste repositories, since such SCMs provide reliable means for predicting the radioactive dose released by 126Sn from nuclear waste into the biosphere across a wide range of physicochemical conditions typical for the engineered as well as natural barriers.

Le présent manuscrit de thèse se propose d'étudier l'évolution de l'interaction nucléaire dans les noyaux riches en neutrons de la région du coeur doublement magique de 132Sn via les isotopes de 136Sb, 136Sn et de 138Sn. Le premier chapitre de ce manuscrit présente succinctement certains des isotopes de Sb et de Sn connus à ce jour au delà des fermetures de couches Z=50 et N=82, ainsi que certaines des problématiques rencontrées pour la description des noyaux de cette région par le modèle en couches nucléaire. Le lecteur y trouvera en outre une brève présentation des outils indispensables à la compréhension de tels calculs. Les états excités du 136Sb furent produits à l'Institut Laue-Langevin de Grenoble via le mécanisme de fission induite par neutrons thermiques sur une cible de 241Pu. Les fragments de fission ainsi produits furent séparés par le spectromètre de masse Lohengrin, et une mesure des gammas et des électrons de conversions des fragments de 136Sb permirent la confirmation du précédent spectre expérimental obtenu ainsi que la mesure d'une durée de vie de 31(7) ns pour l'état de spin 4-. Ces éléments sont présentés et discutés en première partie du manuscrit. Les isotopes de 136,138Sn, objets de la seconde partie, furent quant à eux produits par fission d'un faisceau de 238U sur une cible de 9Be au RIBF du RIKEN, à Tokyo. Les séparateurs de masses BigRIPS et ZDS y permirent une séparation et une identification des fragments de fission ainsi produits avant leur implantation dans le détecteur en silicium hautement segmenté WAS3ABi, entouré par l'ensemble de détecteurs en germaniums EURICA. Une première mesure des énergies des transitions 6+ -> 4+, 4+ -> 2+ et 2+ -> 0+ de chacun de ces deux isotopes fut alors réalisée, ainsi que la mesure d'une durée de vie de 46(7) et 219(58) ns pour les états de spins 6+ du 136Sn et du 138Sn respectivement. / Evolution of nuclear structure in the vicinity of the doubly magic nuclei 132Sn will be discussed in this work, through the spectroscopy of 136Sb, 136Sn and 138Sn isotopes. Several Sb and Sn known isotopes beyond the Z=50 and N=82 shell closures will be briefly presented in the first chapter, aswell as some of the problems arising from the current shell model descritpion of nuclei in this region. Reader will also find in the same chapter a brief description of the most important tools needed to understand such calculations. Excited state of 136Sb have been populated at the Institut Laue-Langevin (Grenoble) through thermal neutron-induced fission on a 241Pu target. Fission fragments produced were separated with the Lohengrin mass spectrometer. Conversion electrons and gammas from 136Sb were measured and confirmed the previously proposed schemed. A new 31(7) ns isomer has been measured and assigned to the 4- state. Details of the experiment and analysis are presented in the first part. The second part is devoted to the 136,138Sn isotopes, produced via in-flight fission of 238U on a 9Be target at the RIBF of the RIKEN (Tokyo). Mass separators BigRIPS and ZDS allowed separation and identification of produced fragments, before implantation in the higly segmented silicon detector WAS3ABi surrounded by the germanium array EURICA. The first energy measurement of the 6+ -> 4+, 4+ -> 2+ and 2+ -> 0+ transitions has been performed for each of the 136,138Sn isotopes, aswell as an 46(7) and 219(58) ns half-life for the 6+ state of the 136Sn and 138Sn respectively.

Os eletrocatalisadores de PtSn/C-ITO foram preparados pelo método de redução via borohidreto de sódio com uma carga metálica de 20% em massa suportados em carbono Vulcan XC72 e óxidos de estanho e índio (ITO) nas seguintes composições; 50:50, 70:30 e 90:10. Os eletrocatalisadores foram submetidos a análises de caracterização por difração de raios-x (DRX), microscopia de transmissão eletrônica (MET), espectroscopia de energia dispersiva de raios x (EDX) e análises eletroquímicas pelas técnicas de voltametria cíclica e de amperometria para os estudos da oxidação eletroquímica em etanol. Nas técnicas eletroquímicas foi utilizado o eletrodo de camada fina porosa onde os eletrocatalisadores foram testados tanto no meio ácido quanto no meio alcalino. Experimentos em célula unitária alimentadas diretamente por etanol foram testados simulando condições reais de operação. As análises eletroquímicas e de caracterização física em meio ácido permitiram comparar o desempenho e estabilidades dos eletrocatalisadores em estudo e também demonstraram os benefícios da adição do estanho e do ITO, tendo como destaque o eletrocatalisador de PtSn/C-ITO 70:30. Em meio alcalino o eletrocatalisador PtSn/C-ITO 50:50 demonstrou ter o melhor desempenho nas análises de voltametria cíclica e amperometria, entretanto, a mesma eficácia não ocorreu nos experimentos em célula unitária o que leva a crer que em meio alcalino o mecanismo de oxidação do etanol sob temperatura e outros parâmetros reais pertinentes à operação da célula precisam ser mudados e/ou estudados. / PtSn /C-ITO electrocatalysts were prepared by the sodium borohydride reduction method with 20% mass metallic load supported on Vulcan XC72 carbon and tin and indium oxides (ITO) in the following compositions; 50:50, 70:30 and 90:10. The electrocatalysts were subjected to x-ray diffraction characterization (XRD), transmission electron microscope (TEM), energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDX) and electrochemical analyzes using cyclic voltammetry and amperometric techniques for studies of ethanol electrochemical oxidation. In the electrochemical techniques the thin porous coating was used where the electrocatalysts were tested in both the acidic and alkaline media. Experiments in unit cell fed directly by ethanol were tested simulating real operating conditions. The electrochemical and physical characterization analyzes in acid medium allowed to compare the performance and stabilities of the electrocatalysts under study and also demonstrated the benefits of the addition of tin and ITO, with emphasis at PtSn/C-ITO 70:30 electrocatalyst. In alkaline media the PtSn/C-ITO 50:50 electrocatalyst demonstrated the best performance in the tests of cyclic voltammetry and amperometry, however, the same efficiency did not happen in the unit cell tests which leads to believe that in alkaline medium the oxidation mechanism of ethanol under temperature and other actual pertinent parameters to cell operation need to be changed and/or studied.

Behaviour of Group III (Al) and IV (Sn) metals on Si(100) surface was studied by Scanning Tunnelling Microscopy in a temperature range from 115 K to 350 K. Evolution of the length of Sn chains at room and elevated temperatures was studied by the method of repeated line scans. Activation energies and the respective frequency prefactors for detachment of different individual atoms from the chains' terminations were obtained by means of statistical processing. Kinetic Monte Carlo simulations were used to obtain activation energies for hops of Sn adatoms on the Si(100) surface at room temperature by fitting experimentally measured growth characteristics of Sn/Si(100). Three basic Al objects observed by Scanning Tunnelling Microscopy at room temperature on Si(100) were identified and thoroughly described. Direct observation of Al adatom hopping on Si(100)-c(4x2) at 115 K was used to evaluate the activation energies for individual hops in directions parallel with Si dimer rows and perpendicular to Si dimer rows. Kinetic Monte Carlo simulations were used to obtain activation energies for hops of Al adatoms on the Si(100) surface at room temperature by fitting experimentally measured growth characteristics of Al/Si(100).

No description available.

The electro–mechanical connection between under bump metallization (UBM) and solder in flip–chip bonding is achieved by the formation of brittle intermetallic compounds (IMCs) during the soldering process. These IMCs continue to grow in the solid–state during storage at room temperature and service at an elevated temperature leading to degradation of the contacts. In this thesis, the diffusion–controlled growth mechanism of the phases and the formation of the Kirkendall voids at the interface of UBM (Cu, Ni, Au, Pd, Pt) and Sn (bulk/electroplated) are studied extensively. Based on the microstructural analysis in SEM and TEM, the presence of bifurcation of the Kirkendall marker plane, a very special phenomenon discovered recently, is found in the Cu–Sn system. The estimated diffusion coefficients at these marker planes indicate one of the reasons for the growth of the Kirkendall voids, which is one of the major reliability concerns in a microelectronic component. Systematic experiments using different purity of Cu are conducted to understand the effect of impurities on the growth of the Kirkendall voids. It is conclusively shown that increase in impurity enhances the growth of voids. The growth rates of the interdiffusion zone are found to be comparable in the Cu–Sn and the Ni–Sn systems. EPMA and TEM analyses indicate the growth of a metastable phase in the Ni–Sn system in the low temperature range. Following, the role of Ni addition in Cu on the growth of IMCs in the Cu–Sn system is studied based on the quantitative diffusion analysis. The analysis of thermodynamic driving forces, microstructure and crystal structure of Cu6Sn5 shed light on the atomic mechanism of diffusion. It does not change the crystal structure of phases; however, the microstructural evolution, the diffusion rates of components and the growth of the Kirkendall voids are strongly influenced in the presence of Ni. Considering microstructure of the product phases in various Cu/Sn and Cu(Ni)/Sn diffusion couples, it has been observed that (i) phases have smaller grains and nucleate repeatedly, when they grow from Cu or Cu(Ni) alloy, and (ii) the same phases have elongated grains, when they grow from another phase. A difference in growth rate of the phases is found in bulk and electroplated diffusion couples in the Au–Sn system. The is explained in AuSn4 based on the estimated tracer diffusion coefficients, homologous temperature of the experiments, grain size distribution and crystal structure of the phase. The growth rates of the phases in the Au–Sn system are compared with the Pd–Sn and the Pt–Sn systems. Similar to the Au–Sn system, the growth rate of the interdiffusion zone is found to be parabolic in the Pd–Sn system; however, it is linear in the Pt–Sn system. Following, the effect of addition of Au, Pd and Pt in Cu is studied on growth rate of the phases. An analysis on the formation of the Kirkendall voids indicates that the addition of Pd or Pt is deleterious to the structure compared to the addition of Au. This study indicates that formation of voids is equally influenced by the presence of inorganic as well as organic impurities.