L’amélioration des performances des piles à combustible à oxyde solide(SOFC) passe en partie par l’augmentation de l’activité électrocatalytique de l’électrode àoxygène. Cet objectif peut être atteint soit en recherchant des matériaux plus performants,soit en travaillant sur la mise en forme et la microstructure d’électrodes de matériaux connus.Cette thèse développe cette dernière approche en considérant surtout la technique originalede mise en forme par infiltration appliquée aux matériaux La2NiO4+δ et Pr2NiO4+δ, connuspour leurs propriétés de conduction mixte électronique et ionique. L’optimisation desparamètres a été effectuée sur des électrodes à base de La2NiO4+δ, et a conduit à lapréparation d’électrodes performantes. L’analyse approfondie des résultats de mesuresélectrochimiques a permis de démontrer l’importance primordiale des interfacesgaz/électrode (surface spécifique) et électrode/électrolyte sur l’efficacité de l’électrode.L’étude d’électrodes à base de Pr2NiO4+δ et des phases secondaires issues de sadécomposition ont mis en lumière les propriétés électrocatalytiques remarquables de l’oxydesimple Pr6O11, conduisant à des résistances de polarisation très faibles (Rp = 0,028 Ω·cm2 à600 °C). L’intégration de ce type d’électrode dans une cellule SOFC complète a permis demesurer une densité de puissance élevée de 825 mW·cm-2 à seulement 600 °C etremarquablement stable après 800 h de fonctionnement à 600 °C et 0,5 A·cm-2. / Increasing the electrocatalytic activity of the oxygen electrode is a possible wayto improve SOFCs performance. It can be achieved either by searching for new materials, orby working on the shaping technique and microstructure of electrodes prepared with wellknownmaterials.This thesis developed the latest approach by applying the infiltration technique to thenickelates materials La2NiO4+δ and Pr2NiO4+δ, known for their mixed electronic and ionicconduction properties. The benefits of the infiltration method over more usual techniquessuch as screen printing was first demonstrated on La2NiO4+δ electrodes. The thoroughanalysis of electrochemical measurements highlighted the extensive role of both thegas/electrode (specific area) and the electrode/electrolyte interfaces on the efficiency of theelectrode.The study of Pr2NiO4+δ-based electrodes, and especially of the secondary phases arisingfrom its decomposition, allowed discovering the remarkable electrocatalytic properties of thesimple oxide Pr6O11, leading to very low polarization resistance values (Rp = 0.028 Ω·cm2 at600 °C). The integration of such electrodes in SOFC single cells led to power densities up to825 mW·cm-2 at only 600 °C, with a remarkable stability measured during 800 h at 600 °Cand 0.5 A·cm-2.

Le présent travail souhaite explorer théoriquement et expérimentalement de quelle manière l’augmentation des surfaces d’échange par l’architecturation mésoscopique des interfaces électrode/électrolyte dans une SOFC à anode support pourrait améliorer ses performances. D’abord, une optimisation des caractéristiques microstructurales de l’anode a été effectuée par ajustement de la composition initiale de la barbotine, favorisation de la percolation du réseau de Ni par une microstructure « hiérarchique » et des mesures de perméabilités aux gaz identifiant le choix de l’anode. Ensuite, un modèle électrochimique a montré une augmentation des courants d’échange par rapport à la surface plane dans le cas d’un motif périodique pour une épaisseur d’électrolyte sensiblement plus petite que les dimensions du motif. Ce dernier doit présenter des singularités concaves et convexes de façon à confiner le matériau d’électrode au voisinage de l’interface, ainsi que des caractéristiques géométriques réduisant la surtension de concentration. De telles architectures ont été réalisées, par des techniques de mise en forme des céramiques, sur des anodes auto-supportées (YSZ + Ni) sur lesquelles une couche mince d’électrolyte (YSZ) a été déposée, puis l’ensemble co-fritté. Pour finaliser la cellule, une barrière de diffusion (CGO) et une cathode bicouche (LSCF48 + CGO / LSCF48) ont ensuite été déposées puis frittées. Les premiers résultats électriques et électrochimiques montrent une augmentation de la densité de courant de130 à 300 mA.cm-2 à une tension d’opération de 0,7 V, qui reste plus élevée que ce que prévoyait la modélisation. Les résultats sont discutés ici en termes de géométrie du motif et de son évolution au cours du frittage, ainsi que des surtensions d’activation et de concentration. / The present work aims to explore, theoretically and experimentally, how the increase of exchange surfaces via the mesoscopic scale corrugation of electrode / electrolyte interfaces in an anode-supported SOFC could improve its performance. First, an optimization of the microstructural characteristics of the anode was performed by adjusting the initial composition of the slurry, favoring the percolation of the network of Ni by a "hierarchical" microstructure and gas permeability measurements identifying the choice of the anode. Next, an electrochemical model showed an increase in the exchange currents with respect to the planar surface in the case of a periodic pattern for an electrolyte thickness substantially smaller than the dimensions of the pattern. The latter must have concave and convex singularities so as to confine the electrode material in the vicinity of the interface, as well as geometrical characteristics reducing the concentration overvoltage. Such architectures have been carried out by ceramic shaping techniques on self-supported anodes (YSZ + Ni) on which a thin layer of electrolyte (YSZ) has been deposited, and then the co-sintered along with the anode. To finalize the cell, a diffusion barrier (CGO) and a bi-layered cathode (LSCF48 + CGO / LSCF48) were then deposited and then sintered. The first electrical and electrochemical results show an increase in the current density from 130 to 300 mA.cm-2 at an operating voltage of 0.7V, which is still higher than what was anticipated by modeling, reaching more than the double of the value for flat interfaces. The results are discussed here in terms of geometry of the pattern and its evolution during sintering, as well as activation and concentration overvoltages.

La mise au point d'une cellule de SOFC haute performance de configuration anode support pour un fonctionnement sous méthane pur nécessite l'élaboration d'un film mince d'électrolyte et le développement d'une architecture innovante permettant le reformage d'hydrocarbures. La première partie du travail a consisté en l'élaboration de films minces d'électrolyte de zircone stabilisée à l'oxyde d'yttrium par atomisation électrostatique sur un substrat composite poreux NiO-8YSZ. Cette technique originale a permis l'obtention de films minces, denses et étanches à partir d'une suspension, présentant des propriétés électriques comparables à celles d'un échantillon massif de même composition. La seconde partie du travail a porté sur la mise au point d'une cellule de SOFC optimisée dont l'architecture innovante intégrant une membrane anodique catalytique est basée sur le concept associant le reformage interne progressif et le découplage électro-catalytique. Une séquence d'élaboration établie spécifiquement conditionne l'assemblage des éléments optimisés de la cellule. L'adaptation de la cellule dans un banc de mesures a permis la réalisation de tests électrochimiques sous hydrogène et méthane à haute température. Le fonctionnement stable du dispositif pendant plus de 1000 h sous méthane pur avec un taux d'utilisation optimisé, sans apport extérieur d'eau et sans dépôt de carbone a validé le concept étudié. / The design of a high performance anode supported SOFC operating under pure methane requires the elaboration of a thin film of electrolyte and the development of an original architecture adapted to the reforming of hydrocarbons. The first part of this work was dedicated to the elaboration of yttria stabilized zirconia thin films of electrolyte by ESD onto a NiO-8YSZ porous substrate. This original technique has allowed the fabrication of thin, dense and gas-tight films starting from a suspension, with good electrical properties comparable to that of a bulk sample of the same nature. The second part of this work concerned the design of an optimized SOFC cell with an original architecture integrating an anodic catalytic membrane based on a concept gathering the gradual internal reforming and the electro-catalytic dissociation. The assembly of the optimized components is conditioned by an elaboration sequence specifically established. The adjustment of the cell in a test bench led to the achievement of electrochemical tests in hydrogen and methane at 800°C. The stable operating of the cell fueled by pure and dry methane with optimized faradaic efficiency for more than 1000 h without carbon deposition proved the viability of the studied concept.

Diversos anodos para célula a combustível de óxido sólido (SOFC) têm sido estudados devido aos problemas de deterioração dos anodos tradicionalmente usados, os compósitos à base de zircônia estabilizada/Ni (YSZ/Ni). Estudos prévios evidenciaram que a perovskita La0,75Sr0,25Cr0,50Mn0,50O3 (LSCM) possui desempenho similar em SOFCs usando hidrogênio e metano como combustível, tornando essa cerâmica um possível substituto dos compósitos à base de níquel. No presente estudo, foram sintetizados compostos La0,75Sr0,25Cr0,50-xMn0,50- yRux,yO3 (LSCM-Ru) pelo método dos precursores poliméricos. Análises termogravimétrica e térmica diferencial (TG/ATD) simultâneas e difração de raios X (DRX) foram utilizadas para monitorar a evolução térmica das resinas precursoras e a formação de fase dos compostos. As propriedades elétricas de amostras sinterizadas foram estudadas pela técnica de 4 pontas de prova dc na faixa de temperatura entre 25 °C e 800 °C. Os resultados experimentais indicaram a formação de fase única dos compostos LSCM-Ru calcinados a ~1200 °C. Os parâmetros de rede, calculados a partir dos dados de DRX, revelaram que a substituição parcial dos íons Cr ou Mn pelo Ru não altera significativamente a estrutura cristalina do LSCM até x,y ~ 0,10; uma característica consistente com os raios iônicos similares dos cátions Cr, Mn e Ru com número de coordenação seis. Medidas de resistividade elétrica ao ar mostraram que o mecanismo de transporte não é alterado e que o efeito da substituição de Ru nas propriedades elétricas do composto depende do íon substituído (Cr ou Mn) de maneira consistente com suas substituições parciais. Os testes de SOFCs unitárias revelaram que células com os anodos constituídos por uma camada coletora de corrente do anodo cerâmico LSCM-Ru e uma camada funcional de YSZ/Ni têm desempenho superior a células contendo apenas o anodo cerâmico. As células contendo os anodos cerâmicos LSCM-Ru foram testadas em hidrogênio e etanol, entre 800 °C e 950 °C, e mostraram desempenho em etanol superior ao em hidrogênio; uma característica que foi associada às propriedades de transporte eletrônico dos compostos LSCM-Ru em atmosfera redutora. Os resultados sugerem que os compostos LSCM com substituição parcial de Ru são anodos promissores para SOFC operando com etanol. / Several anodes for solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) have been studied because of serious degradation exhibited by the traditionally used yttria-stabilized zirconia/Ni cermets (YSZ/Ni). Previous studies showed that the perovskite La0.75Sr0.25Cr0.50Mn0.50O3 (LSCM) has similar performance in SOFCs running on hydrogen and methane fuels, making such a ceramic a potential alternative to YSZ/Ni cermets. In the present study, compounds La0.75Sr0.25Cr0.50- xMn0.50-yRux,yO3 (LSCM-Ru) were synthesized by the polymeric precursor method. Simultaneous thermogravimetric and differential thermal analysis (TG/DTA) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) were used to monitor the thermal evolution of the precursor resins and the formation of crystalline phases. The electrical properties of sintered samples were studied by the 4-probe dc technique in the temperature range between 25 °C and 800 °C with controlled atmosphere. The experimental results showed the formation of single phase LSCM-Ru compounds after heat treatment at ~ 1200 °C. Lattice parameters, calculated from the XRD data, revealed that the partial substitution of Cr or Mn by Ru has no significant effect on the crystal structure of LSCM up to Ru x,y ~ 0.10; in agreement with the similar ionic radius of Cr, Mn and Ru with coordination number six. Electrical resistivity measurements showed that the transport mechanism is unchanged and that the effect of Ru addition on the electrical properties of the compound depends on the substituted ion (Cr or Mn). Electrochemical tests of SOFCs demonstrated that single cells comprised of a current collector layer of LSCM-Ru ceramic anode and a functional layer for YSZ/Ni have superior performance when compared to single cells with only one layer of the ceramic anode. Single cells with the LSCM-Ru ceramic anode layer were tested under both hydrogen and ethanol fuels, in the 800 °C - 950 °C temperature range. The main results showed that the single fuel cells exhibited higher performance under ethanol than under hydrogen; a feature that was related to the enhanced electronic transport properties of LSCM-Ru in reducing atmosphere. The experimental results suggest that the LSCM-Ru compounds are promising anodes for ethanol fueled SOFCs.

A temperatura de operação de células a combustível de óxido sólido (SOFCs) que utilizam zirconia estabilizada com itria (YSZ) como eletrólito é 1000 oC. Essa alta temperatura gera graves problemas relativos a materiais e vida util da célula. Por isso, condutores iônicos que possuem alta condutividade em temperaturas inferiores são pesquisados atualmente. Estudos mostraram que La10Si6O27 tipo apatita possui alta condutividade iônica de oxigenio, que é comparativamente maior que a de YSZ, a 500 oC, sendo, portanto, um potencial candidato como eletrólito para SOFC. O objetivo do presente trabalho é o desenvolvimento de técnicas de síntese de silicato de lantânio tipo apatita. Rotas inéditas de solgel modificada para sintetizar La9,33Si6O26 são propostas. Volumes estequiométricos de soluções de Na2SiO3 e LaCl3 foram misturados para a formação de gel de Si. Em seguida este gel foi calcinado a 900 °C, lavado, filtrado e tratado novamente a 900 °C. Em outra rota, volumes estequiométricos de soluções de Si (Na2SiO3 ou TEOS) e de La (LaCl3) foram utilizados para obtenção de gel de Si. Em seguida, hidróxido de La foi precipitado pela adição de uma base (NaOH ou NH4OH) ao gel. O material resultante foi calcinado a 900 °C, lavado, filtrado e tratado novamente a 900 °C. Pós de aglomerados fracos e alta sinterabilidade foram obtidos. DRX dos pós mostrou a estrutura de apatita monofásica a 900 oC. Morfologia de ceramica densa foi observada em imagens de MEV da superfície das pastilhas sinterizadas a 1200,1300 e 1400 oC por 4 h. Estas temperaturas e tempo de sinterização são significativas, pois no método convencional temperaturas superiores a 1700oC e tempos muito maiores são necessários para obtenção de tais cerâmicas. Densidades relativas superiores a 90% foram obtidas através dos métodos propostos. Uma conclusão importante é que TEOS, o reagente usual de alto custo, pode ser substituído por Na2SiO3, de preço muito mais baixo, para obter La9,33Si6O26 tipo apatita. / Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFCs) operating temperature that uses yttria stabilized zirconia (YSZ) as the electrolyte is 1000ºC. This high temperature causes serious problems concerning cell life and materials. Therefore, the ionic conductors which have high conductivity at lower temperature are currently researched. Studies have shown that the composition of La10Si6O27 apatite type has high oxygen ionic conductivity, which is comparably higher than that of YSZ, at 500 oC, it is therefore a potential candidate as for SOFC electrolyte. The objective of the present work is the development of lanthanum silicate with apatite type synthesis techniques. Novel modified solgel routes to synthesize La9.33Si6O26 are proposed. Stoichiometric volumes of Na2SiO3 and LaCl3 solutions were mixed for the formation of Si gel. This gel was calcined at 900 °C, washed, filtered and again thermally treated at 900 °C. In the other route, stoichiometric volumes of Si (Na2SiO3 or TEOS) and La (LaCl3) solutions were used for obtaining Si gel. Then, La hydroxide was precipitated by adding of a base (NaOH or NH4OH) to gel. Then the material was calcined at 900 °C, washed, filtered and again treated at 900 °C. Highly sinterable weakly agglomerated powders have been obtained. XRD patterns of the powders showed the single-phase apatite structure at 900 oC. Dense ceramic morphology was observed from the SEM images of surface of the pellets sintered at 1200, 1300 and 1400oC for 4h. This low temperature sintering and time of sintering are significant because the conventional method requires superior temperatures of 1700 oC to obtain the same dense ceramics. High relative densities higher than 90% was obtained via proposed methods. An Important conclusion is the TEOS, the usual high cost reagent, may be substituted by a cheap price Na2SiO3, to obtain apatite type La9.33Si6O26.

Neste trabalho, investigou-se a atividade catalítica de materiais a base de Ni/YSZ modificados com Rh ou Ru a 0,5%, 1% e 3%, para a reforma a vapor de etanol (RVE) e seus desempenhos como eletrocatalisadores em células a combustível de óxido sólido (SOFCs - Solid Oxide Fuel Cell). Os catalisadores foram preparados pelo método Pechini e de impregnação. A caracterização estrutural foi realizada utilizando-se as técnicas de Energia Dispersiva de Raios X, Difratometria de Raios X, Redução à Temperatura Programada, Fisissorção de Nitrogênio, Microscopia Eletrônica de Varredura e Análise Elementar. Os testes catalíticos foram realizados a 700 e 900 °C, em uma linha de reação acoplada a um cromatógrafo a gás para o monitoramento dos produtos reacionais gasosos. Os produtos líquidos resultantes da RVE foram analisados por Cromatografia Líquida de Alta Eficiência (CLAE). O objetivo principal foi correlacionar a estrutura e a composição destes materiais com a produção de H2, distribuição de outros produtos reacionais e formação de depósitos de carbono. Os resultados obtidos mostraram que a incorporação de Rh ou Ru no catalisador de Ni/YSZ não resultou em mudanças significativas na estrutura e atividade catalítica, porém promoveu uma diminuição na quantidade de carbono formado, sendo mais expressiva para o caso da adição de Rh. O aumento da temperatura de reação de 700 °C para 900 °C resultou em um aumento da seletividade dos catalisadores para os produtos gasosos e diminuição da formação de coque. O estudo em uma célula unitária de SOFC foi conduzido utilizando-se platina no cátodo e 3%Rh/40%Ni/YSZ(P) no ânodo, em uma célula operando com H2 e ar a 900 °C. Embora as curvas de polarização tenham apresentado baixas densidades de potência, os resultados mostraram que o material de 3%Rh/40%Ni/YSZ(P) foi ativo para a produção e eletro-oxidação de H2 em condições reais de operação das SOFCs. Além disso, mostrou-se que é possível investigar a atividade de eletrocatalisadores de ânodos de SOFC para a reforma de etanol em linhas de reação comumente utilizadas em estudos de catálise heterogênea. / In this work, it was investigated the electrocatalytic activity of Ni/YSZ promoted with Rh or Ru (0.5 wt%, 1.0 wt% and 3.0 wt% content) for the Ethanol Steam Reforming (ESR) reaction, and their performance as electrocatalysts in Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs). The catalysts were prepared by the Pechini and Impregnation methods. The material characterization was carried out by Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDX), X-ray Diffraction (DRX), Temperature Programmed Reduction (TPR-H2), N2 physisorption, Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), and Elemental Analysis. The catalytic tests were performed at 700 and 900 °C in a reaction system coupled to a gas chromatograph in order to monitor the gaseous products. The liquid products were analyzed by High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). The structure and composition of these catalysts were correlated to the H2 formation, with the distribution of other parallel reaction products, including the carbon deposition. The obtained results showed that the incorporation of Rh or Ru does not change significantly the structure and catalytic activity, but it decreases the carbon deposits, being more significant for the addition of Rh. The increase of the reaction temperature from 700 °C to 900 °C increased the gaseous products selectivities and decreased the carbon deposition. The study in SOFC unit cells were conducted using platinum and 3%Rh/40%Ni/YSZ(P) in the cathode and anode, respectively. The SOFC operated with H2 and air, and 900 °C. Although the polarization curves have presented low power densities, the obtained results showed that the 3%Rh/40%Ni/YSZ(P) electrocatalyst was active for the H2 production and eletro-oxidation in the SOFC real operation conditions. Furthermore, the results have demonstrated that it is possible to investigate SOFC electrocatalysts activity for the ethanol steam reforming in reaction lines commonly utilized in heterogeneous catalysis studies.

Proton conducting intermediate temperature (600oC-400oC) solid oxide fuel cells (IT-SOFC) have many potential advantages for clean and efficient power generation from readily available hydrocarbon fuels. However, it still has many unsolved problems, especially on the anode where the fuel got oxidized and the cathode where oxygen got reduced. In this study, for the anode, the effects of hydrogen sulfite (H2S) and carbon dioxide (CO2) as fuel contaminants were studied on the nickel (Ni) based cermet anode of proton conducting IT-SOFC using proton conducting electrolyte of BaZr0.1Ce0.7Y0.1Yb0.1O3 (BZCYYb). Both low-ppm level H2S and low-percentage level CO2 caused similar poisoning effects on the anode reaction. The H2S poisoning effect was also found to be much less than on oxide-ion conducting SOFC, which is attributed to the absence of water evolution for the anode reaction in proton conducting SOFC. In addition, the H2S/CO2 poisoning mechanisms were investigated using X-ray diffraction, energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), Raman spectroscopy, and secondary ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS). For H2S, other than possible sulfur dissolution into BZCYYb, no bulk reaction was found, suggesting sulfur adsorption contributes to the reduced performance. For CO2, reaction with BZCYYb to form BaCO3 and CeO2 is identified and is believed to be the reason for the sudden worsening in CO2 poisoning as temperature drops below ~550oC. For the cathode, several representative SOFC cathodes including silver (Ag), La0.6Sr0.4Co0.2Fe0.8O3-δ (LSCF), LSCF-BZCYYb composite, and Ba0.5Sr0.5Co0.8Fe0.2O3-δ (BSCF) were evaluated based on BZCYYb electrolyte. LSCF give similar high interfacial resistance as Ag, while LSCF-BZCYYb composite cathode shows lower interfacial resistance, suggesting LSCF behaves like pure electronic conductor cathode in this case. For BSCF, it shows smallest interfacial resistance and the charge transfer process appears to accelerate with the introduction of H2O, while oxygen adsorption/transport seem to slow down due to adsorbed H2O. Furthermore, CO2 was shown to cause poisoning on the BSCF cathode, yet the poisoning was significantly reduced with the co-presence of water. The results suggest that although BSCF seem to display mixed proton-electronic conduction, its strong affinity to H2O may inhibit the oxygen reduction reaction on the cathode and new cathode materials still need to be designed.

No description available.

The first part of this thesis intends to create a fuel processor model capable of generating 1kW power as output through the use of a solid oxide fuel cell system. The fuel processor system consists of a reformer, heat exchanger network, desulphurizer and an afterburner. Modelled in VMGSimTM, inlet diesel gas is provided at the mass flow rate of 0.2596kg/hour, with the oxygen to carbon ratio calculated at 0.31 and the steam to carbon ratio arbitrarily set to be 2.25. The diesel fuel is preheated and mixed with air and steam and then fed to the auto-thermal reformer. The higher hydrocarbons are broken down and converted into hydrogen. The outlet of the reformer is fed into the SOFC where H2 is converted to generate energy which, in this case is approximately 1200W. The off gas is fed to the afterburner; where the remaining H2 is burnt and the energy is used to provide for steam generation and pre-heating through the heat exchangers. The project also focuses upon performing basic sizing calculations on components of the system. The fuel cell efficiency was found to be 62% and the system efficiency was calculated to be approximately 41%, which falls within the range given in literature. For the second part of this work, a ceramic porous tail-gas burner using a non-premixed feed of anode exhaust and air was modeled using COMSOL™. The reaction kinetics were experimentally assessed on the basis of COMSOL™ limitations and accuracy of the comparative results. Three performance metrics were evaluated in the analysis: i) velocity profile, ii) temperature profile, and iii) concentration profile. These metrics confirm the combustion reaction at the outer boundary of the porous ceramic in the burner. The spike of temperature and decrease of mass fraction of hydrogen, carbon monoxide and methane to approximately zero in the outlet exhaust confirms this study. This study was further validated by comparing results with the experimental data collected at NRC-IFCI. The results of COMSOL™ model agreed with the experimental results of NRC-IFCI. / Thesis (Master, Chemical Engineering) -- Queen's University, 2013-10-29 17:49:32.266

<p>Syftet med studien var att undersöka rederiernas syn på bränslecellen och framförallt försöka avgöra förutsättningarna för när bränslecellen kan få sitt genombrott till sjöss.</p><p>Datainsamlingen skedde med en internationellt distribuerad enkät i elektroniskt format. Urvalet bestämdes till att omfatta de fem största rederierna i de tjugo största flaggstaterna och även de fem största svenska rederierna.</p><p>Svarsfrekvensen blev tyvärr för låg för att möjliggöra några säkra slutsatser. Resultatet tyder ändå på att sjöfartsnäringen inte är beredda att betala mer för en bränslecell än för ett konventionellt system. Därför kommer ett genombrott troligen inte att ske utan ökade miljöavgifter, införsel av handel med utsläppsrätter eller drastiskt höjda bränslepriser.</p> / <p>The purpose with this thesis was to investigate the prospects of the fuel cell technology within the shipping industry and also to evaluate when the fuel cell could get a breakthrough in shipping.</p><p>The data was collected via an internationally distributed questionnaire. The selection of shipping companies for the survey consisted of the five largest shipping companies in the twenty largest maritime countries. The five largest Swedish shipping companies were also included.</p><p>The number of answers was unfortunately too low to be able to deduce any reliable conclusions. The results still indicate that shipping companies are not interested in paying more for a fuel cell than for a more conventional system. Because of this there will probably not be a breakthrough for the fuel cell, until there is an increase in environmental fees, a trade with emissions or drastically higher fuel prices.</p>