Science studies contends that scientific knowledge is produced through social and geographical processes. This dissertation applies this insight to the production of economic knowledge, specifically addressing how the Anti-Corn Law League, an organization that campaigned against the protectionist Corn Laws in Britain in the 1830s and 40s, made economic truth. The argument is organized in five chapters. The Introduction discusses the key theoretical ideas from science studies – controversy, consensus, and credibility – that later chapters use in interpreting the Anti-Corn Law campaign. Chapter II supplies the social and intellectual context of the Anti-Corn Law movement, showing how its origins in Manchester shaped its meaning, and how uncertainty about the benefits of free trade compelled Leaguers to present a persuasive case for it. Chapter III explores how the League’s public meetings were conducted, arguing that economic knowledge was produced through the processes of presenting and authenticating testimony, in which mass assent, expressed through various imaginaries of the nation, functioned as a rhetorical voucher of truth. Chapter IV examines a case in which assent was not attained, and the means through which the League sought to maintain credibility. It is argued that the League depicted itself as trustworthy according to assumptions society shared about what counted as knowledge and honesty, assumptions that constituted what can be called a cultural map of credibility. The Conclusion summarizes the main arguments of the thesis. It explicitly relates the study to the literature on the geographies of science, and elaborates on how geographical imaginations are inscribed in the process of knowledge production.

Forest health in the United States has been suffering due to threats such as climate change, wildfire, and human development. As a result, efforts are being undertaken to restore natural processes, improve health, and foster resilience in forested systems. Such efforts involve diverse stakeholders, land management agencies, scientists, and the public, who work together collaboratively to find common goals and agreeable solutions. Central to collaborative forest management is an emphasis on using science to inform decision-making. Yet there are many challenges to applying science in decision-making and developing actionable scientific information for management. Many of the efforts to better align science and decision-making have focused on climate research, and additional empirical evidence is needed to provide context-specific recommendations for connecting science and decision-making in different areas of natural resource management. To that end, this dissertation provides an assessment of the role of science in collaborative forest management. The central question that unifies this work is: how is science applied in decision-making for collaborative forest management, and in what ways can the use of science for decision-making in this context be improved? The first two appendices address this within the context of the Collaborative Forest Landscape Restoration Program (CFLRP): Appendix A examines the role of science in the CFLRP; and Appendix B assesses how science informs decision-making in the CFLRP. Appendix C addresses the application, development, and communication of scientific information to support resilient forest management. This dissertation illustrates the importance of common goals, in-person interactions, and sustained communication between scientists and decision-makers in order to integrate science into the forest management process.

Apresentamos, nesta tese, uma investigação sobre a estabilização ontológica do fóton, um actante inicialmente articulado no contexto da primeira revolução da Física Quântica. Partindo dos Estudos da Ciência de Bruno Latour, entendemos a ciência como uma rede que se estende por diferentes setores da sociedade e que, portanto, lida com diferentes gêneros do discurso. Além de identificar a importância do gênero científico (artigos seminais) no processo de autonomização dos fatos científicos, também reconhecemos que, na comunidade da Física, os livros didáticos, ou manuais de instrução, tem papel crucial no estabelecimento dos problemas exemplares bem como das teorias hegemônicas, tanto que, hoje, é possível um físico se formar sem estudar os artigos originais sobre Física Quântica. Ademais, os livros didáticos de ciências da Educação Básica são, atualmente, responsáveis pela extensão da rede científica para além dos laboratórios, autonomizando actantes como o fóton em esferas mais amplas da sociedade, papel que Latour poderia chamar de representação pública. O objetivo desta pesquisa é investigar a interação entres esses três gêneros do discurso (artigos seminais, livros didáticos de ensino superior e livros didáticos de ensino médio) e interpretar como que a estabilização ontológica do fóton é mediada por cada um deles. Ao fazer isso, estamos estendendo o programa de pesquisa de Latour em, pelo menos, três sentidos. Primeiramente, incluímos o papel do contexto didático na rede da ciência. Segundo, nossos objetos de investigação estão separados por um intervalo temporal maior do que o usual (aproximadamente cem anos). E, por fim, enquanto Latour dedica-se, principalmente, ao estudo de ciências empíricas, nosso trabalho volta-se para assim chamada Física Teórica, levantando questões ontológicas não discutidas originalmente por Latour. Para dar conta dessa extensão, o presente trabalho está dividido em duas partes. A parte I (Referencial Teórico) traz três artigos sobre as ideias de Bruno Latour e as possibilidades de sua aplicação na pesquisa em Educação em Ciências, o que temos chamado de Sociologia Simétrica da Educação em Ciências ou Estudos da Educação em Ciência. A parte II (Estudos Empíricos) traz quatro artigos (dois sobre as relações entre artigos seminais e livros de ensino superior e dois sobre as relações entre artigos seminais, livros de ensino superior e livros de ensino médio). O primeiro estudo empírico traz uma análise metalinguística do artigo original de Einstein de 1905 em que o quantum é articulado pela primeira vez sem que se precisasse recorrer a nenhum laboratório. No segundo artigo, apresentamos uma análise conceitual e matemática dos artigos de de Broglie e usamos as ideias de Latour para discutir o papel dos livros didáticos na autonomização de sua teoria. No terceiro artigo, analisamos visões epistemológicas em livros didáticos de Física aprovados no Plano Nacional do Livro Didático do Ensino Médio de 2015. E, no quarto artigo, discutimos a narrativa sobre o fóton nesses livros a partir de uma articulação teórica entre ideias de Latour e Bakhtin. Nossos principais resultados apontam o papel articulador da matemática na estabilização de actantes físicos e o papel ativo dos autores de livros didáticos na estabilização do fóton a partir da hibridização de diferentes visões e do uso de mecanismos de causação reversa. / We present an investigation about the ontological stabilization of photon, an actant articulated initially in the context of the first Quantum Revolution. Departing from Bruno Latour’s Science Studies, we take Science as a network spread through different sectors of society and which deals with different speech genders. Besides of identifying the importance of the scientific gender (scientific papers) in the process of autonomation of scientific facts, we also recognize that, in the Physics community, textbooks play a crucial role in the establishment of traditional problems as well as hegemonic theories. Nowadays, someone can conclude an undergraduate course on Physics without having read any of the original papers about Quantum Physics. Furthermore, textbooks in Basic Education are responsible by the extension of the scientific network beyond laboratories, autotomizing actants like the photon in wider spheres of society, what Latour would call public representation. The goal of this research is to investigate the interaction among these three speech genders (original papers, undergraduate textbooks and high school textbooks) and to interpret how the ontological stabilization of photon is mediated by each of them. By doing so, we are extending Latour’s research program in at least three ways. First, we include the didactic context in the science network. Second, our objects of investigation are separated in time by a greater gap (about a hundred years). And third, while Latour studied chiefly the empirical sciences, our work is directed towards the Theoretical Physics, raising ontological questions that were not discussed by Latour. To allow this extension, the work is divided in two parts. Part I (Theoretical Framework) presents three papers about Bruno Latour’s ideas and the possibilities of their application in the research on Science Education, what we have called The Symmetric Sociology of Science Education. Part II (Empirical Studies) presents four papers (two about the relation between original papers and undergraduate textbooks and two about the relation between original papers and high school textbooks). The first empirical study presents a metalinguistic analysis of 1905 Einstein’s paper in which the quantum is articulated by the first time without requiring any laboratory trial. In the second paper, we present a conceptual and mathematical analysis of de Broglie’s papers and we use Latour’s ideas to discuss the role of textbooks in the atomization of his theory. In the third paper, we analyze the epistemological visions present in the Physics textbooks approved by the 2015 National Plan of Textbook. In the fourth paper, we discuss the narrative about the photon present in these books departing from a theoretical articulation between Latour’s and Bakhtin’s ideas. Our chief results point to the articulating role of mathematics in the stabilization of physical actants and the active role of textbooks authors in the stabilization of photon through the hybridization of different visions and the use of the mechanisms of reverse causation.

Apresentamos, nesta tese, uma investigação sobre a estabilização ontológica do fóton, um actante inicialmente articulado no contexto da primeira revolução da Física Quântica. Partindo dos Estudos da Ciência de Bruno Latour, entendemos a ciência como uma rede que se estende por diferentes setores da sociedade e que, portanto, lida com diferentes gêneros do discurso. Além de identificar a importância do gênero científico (artigos seminais) no processo de autonomização dos fatos científicos, também reconhecemos que, na comunidade da Física, os livros didáticos, ou manuais de instrução, tem papel crucial no estabelecimento dos problemas exemplares bem como das teorias hegemônicas, tanto que, hoje, é possível um físico se formar sem estudar os artigos originais sobre Física Quântica. Ademais, os livros didáticos de ciências da Educação Básica são, atualmente, responsáveis pela extensão da rede científica para além dos laboratórios, autonomizando actantes como o fóton em esferas mais amplas da sociedade, papel que Latour poderia chamar de representação pública. O objetivo desta pesquisa é investigar a interação entres esses três gêneros do discurso (artigos seminais, livros didáticos de ensino superior e livros didáticos de ensino médio) e interpretar como que a estabilização ontológica do fóton é mediada por cada um deles. Ao fazer isso, estamos estendendo o programa de pesquisa de Latour em, pelo menos, três sentidos. Primeiramente, incluímos o papel do contexto didático na rede da ciência. Segundo, nossos objetos de investigação estão separados por um intervalo temporal maior do que o usual (aproximadamente cem anos). E, por fim, enquanto Latour dedica-se, principalmente, ao estudo de ciências empíricas, nosso trabalho volta-se para assim chamada Física Teórica, levantando questões ontológicas não discutidas originalmente por Latour. Para dar conta dessa extensão, o presente trabalho está dividido em duas partes. A parte I (Referencial Teórico) traz três artigos sobre as ideias de Bruno Latour e as possibilidades de sua aplicação na pesquisa em Educação em Ciências, o que temos chamado de Sociologia Simétrica da Educação em Ciências ou Estudos da Educação em Ciência. A parte II (Estudos Empíricos) traz quatro artigos (dois sobre as relações entre artigos seminais e livros de ensino superior e dois sobre as relações entre artigos seminais, livros de ensino superior e livros de ensino médio). O primeiro estudo empírico traz uma análise metalinguística do artigo original de Einstein de 1905 em que o quantum é articulado pela primeira vez sem que se precisasse recorrer a nenhum laboratório. No segundo artigo, apresentamos uma análise conceitual e matemática dos artigos de de Broglie e usamos as ideias de Latour para discutir o papel dos livros didáticos na autonomização de sua teoria. No terceiro artigo, analisamos visões epistemológicas em livros didáticos de Física aprovados no Plano Nacional do Livro Didático do Ensino Médio de 2015. E, no quarto artigo, discutimos a narrativa sobre o fóton nesses livros a partir de uma articulação teórica entre ideias de Latour e Bakhtin. Nossos principais resultados apontam o papel articulador da matemática na estabilização de actantes físicos e o papel ativo dos autores de livros didáticos na estabilização do fóton a partir da hibridização de diferentes visões e do uso de mecanismos de causação reversa. / We present an investigation about the ontological stabilization of photon, an actant articulated initially in the context of the first Quantum Revolution. Departing from Bruno Latour’s Science Studies, we take Science as a network spread through different sectors of society and which deals with different speech genders. Besides of identifying the importance of the scientific gender (scientific papers) in the process of autonomation of scientific facts, we also recognize that, in the Physics community, textbooks play a crucial role in the establishment of traditional problems as well as hegemonic theories. Nowadays, someone can conclude an undergraduate course on Physics without having read any of the original papers about Quantum Physics. Furthermore, textbooks in Basic Education are responsible by the extension of the scientific network beyond laboratories, autotomizing actants like the photon in wider spheres of society, what Latour would call public representation. The goal of this research is to investigate the interaction among these three speech genders (original papers, undergraduate textbooks and high school textbooks) and to interpret how the ontological stabilization of photon is mediated by each of them. By doing so, we are extending Latour’s research program in at least three ways. First, we include the didactic context in the science network. Second, our objects of investigation are separated in time by a greater gap (about a hundred years). And third, while Latour studied chiefly the empirical sciences, our work is directed towards the Theoretical Physics, raising ontological questions that were not discussed by Latour. To allow this extension, the work is divided in two parts. Part I (Theoretical Framework) presents three papers about Bruno Latour’s ideas and the possibilities of their application in the research on Science Education, what we have called The Symmetric Sociology of Science Education. Part II (Empirical Studies) presents four papers (two about the relation between original papers and undergraduate textbooks and two about the relation between original papers and high school textbooks). The first empirical study presents a metalinguistic analysis of 1905 Einstein’s paper in which the quantum is articulated by the first time without requiring any laboratory trial. In the second paper, we present a conceptual and mathematical analysis of de Broglie’s papers and we use Latour’s ideas to discuss the role of textbooks in the atomization of his theory. In the third paper, we analyze the epistemological visions present in the Physics textbooks approved by the 2015 National Plan of Textbook. In the fourth paper, we discuss the narrative about the photon present in these books departing from a theoretical articulation between Latour’s and Bakhtin’s ideas. Our chief results point to the articulating role of mathematics in the stabilization of physical actants and the active role of textbooks authors in the stabilization of photon through the hybridization of different visions and the use of the mechanisms of reverse causation.

This thesis offers a mixed-method exploratory investigation of global scientific mobility. Contextualised as an important factor in the development of national capacities in science and innovation, global scientific mobility has so far remained a relatively underdeveloped subject in current scholarship. In this doctoral research, the focus on the impact of global scientific mobility that entails change of affiliation on (1) research practice, in particular, boundaries of academic activities, and (2) career development trajectories, increasingly affected by globalisation, is assumed. This research responds to the interest among academic and policy communities in the role of human resources in science-driven economic growth. It integrates three sets of literature, encompassing systems approach to studying learning and innovation; transnational approach to migration studies, and social studies of science that focus on academic citizenship, to explain global transformations in scientific mobility flows across countries and regions; and the post-migration impact of scientists in host organisations and communities. Empirically, this research focuses on career trajectories and elements of academic practice of Russian-speaking nanoscientists educated in post-Soviet countries and working abroad. The Soviet Union was an internationally isolated research system and developed peculiar norms of organisation, communication and governance of science. After the breakdown, post-Soviet countries experienced large-scale human capital flight. Nanotechnology is a generic technology, thought to aggregate advanced use-inspired areas of physics, chemistry and engineering. Around the world, nanotechnology has significant political importance. Policy and public-driven emerging technology agendas reveal contribution of competent post-Soviet scientists, but also elicit differences in approaches and rewards. This study finds significant transformations in scientific mobility flows caused by globalisation-induced opportunities. As relocation becomes easier to accomplish, scientists increasingly build their careers not only in multiple organisations, but also in multiple countries. At the same time, national differences in career development paths and norms of academic community membership have significant influence on career development opportunities of scientists. However, unique skills developed during mobility open up alternative options for globally mobile Russian-speaking nanoscientists, such as engagement in transnational science diaspora networks. This research contributes to understanding of scientific mobility as a simultaneous, continuous, network-based process. It further provides insight into development of multidisciplinary research area that encompasses broader understanding of roles, activities, contributions and opportunities of foreign-born scientists in the globalising world.

Science studies contends that scientific knowledge is produced through social and geographical processes. This dissertation applies this insight to the production of economic knowledge, specifically addressing how the Anti-Corn Law League, an organization that campaigned against the protectionist Corn Laws in Britain in the 1830s and 40s, made economic truth. The argument is organized in five chapters. The Introduction discusses the key theoretical ideas from science studies – controversy, consensus, and credibility – that later chapters use in interpreting the Anti-Corn Law campaign. Chapter II supplies the social and intellectual context of the Anti-Corn Law movement, showing how its origins in Manchester shaped its meaning, and how uncertainty about the benefits of free trade compelled Leaguers to present a persuasive case for it. Chapter III explores how the League’s public meetings were conducted, arguing that economic knowledge was produced through the processes of presenting and authenticating testimony, in which mass assent, expressed through various imaginaries of the nation, functioned as a rhetorical voucher of truth. Chapter IV examines a case in which assent was not attained, and the means through which the League sought to maintain credibility. It is argued that the League depicted itself as trustworthy according to assumptions society shared about what counted as knowledge and honesty, assumptions that constituted what can be called a cultural map of credibility. The Conclusion summarizes the main arguments of the thesis. It explicitly relates the study to the literature on the geographies of science, and elaborates on how geographical imaginations are inscribed in the process of knowledge production. / Arts, Faculty of / Geography, Department of / Graduate

Apresentamos, nesta tese, uma investigação sobre a estabilização ontológica do fóton, um actante inicialmente articulado no contexto da primeira revolução da Física Quântica. Partindo dos Estudos da Ciência de Bruno Latour, entendemos a ciência como uma rede que se estende por diferentes setores da sociedade e que, portanto, lida com diferentes gêneros do discurso. Além de identificar a importância do gênero científico (artigos seminais) no processo de autonomização dos fatos científicos, também reconhecemos que, na comunidade da Física, os livros didáticos, ou manuais de instrução, tem papel crucial no estabelecimento dos problemas exemplares bem como das teorias hegemônicas, tanto que, hoje, é possível um físico se formar sem estudar os artigos originais sobre Física Quântica. Ademais, os livros didáticos de ciências da Educação Básica são, atualmente, responsáveis pela extensão da rede científica para além dos laboratórios, autonomizando actantes como o fóton em esferas mais amplas da sociedade, papel que Latour poderia chamar de representação pública. O objetivo desta pesquisa é investigar a interação entres esses três gêneros do discurso (artigos seminais, livros didáticos de ensino superior e livros didáticos de ensino médio) e interpretar como que a estabilização ontológica do fóton é mediada por cada um deles. Ao fazer isso, estamos estendendo o programa de pesquisa de Latour em, pelo menos, três sentidos. Primeiramente, incluímos o papel do contexto didático na rede da ciência. Segundo, nossos objetos de investigação estão separados por um intervalo temporal maior do que o usual (aproximadamente cem anos). E, por fim, enquanto Latour dedica-se, principalmente, ao estudo de ciências empíricas, nosso trabalho volta-se para assim chamada Física Teórica, levantando questões ontológicas não discutidas originalmente por Latour. Para dar conta dessa extensão, o presente trabalho está dividido em duas partes. A parte I (Referencial Teórico) traz três artigos sobre as ideias de Bruno Latour e as possibilidades de sua aplicação na pesquisa em Educação em Ciências, o que temos chamado de Sociologia Simétrica da Educação em Ciências ou Estudos da Educação em Ciência. A parte II (Estudos Empíricos) traz quatro artigos (dois sobre as relações entre artigos seminais e livros de ensino superior e dois sobre as relações entre artigos seminais, livros de ensino superior e livros de ensino médio). O primeiro estudo empírico traz uma análise metalinguística do artigo original de Einstein de 1905 em que o quantum é articulado pela primeira vez sem que se precisasse recorrer a nenhum laboratório. No segundo artigo, apresentamos uma análise conceitual e matemática dos artigos de de Broglie e usamos as ideias de Latour para discutir o papel dos livros didáticos na autonomização de sua teoria. No terceiro artigo, analisamos visões epistemológicas em livros didáticos de Física aprovados no Plano Nacional do Livro Didático do Ensino Médio de 2015. E, no quarto artigo, discutimos a narrativa sobre o fóton nesses livros a partir de uma articulação teórica entre ideias de Latour e Bakhtin. Nossos principais resultados apontam o papel articulador da matemática na estabilização de actantes físicos e o papel ativo dos autores de livros didáticos na estabilização do fóton a partir da hibridização de diferentes visões e do uso de mecanismos de causação reversa. / We present an investigation about the ontological stabilization of photon, an actant articulated initially in the context of the first Quantum Revolution. Departing from Bruno Latour’s Science Studies, we take Science as a network spread through different sectors of society and which deals with different speech genders. Besides of identifying the importance of the scientific gender (scientific papers) in the process of autonomation of scientific facts, we also recognize that, in the Physics community, textbooks play a crucial role in the establishment of traditional problems as well as hegemonic theories. Nowadays, someone can conclude an undergraduate course on Physics without having read any of the original papers about Quantum Physics. Furthermore, textbooks in Basic Education are responsible by the extension of the scientific network beyond laboratories, autotomizing actants like the photon in wider spheres of society, what Latour would call public representation. The goal of this research is to investigate the interaction among these three speech genders (original papers, undergraduate textbooks and high school textbooks) and to interpret how the ontological stabilization of photon is mediated by each of them. By doing so, we are extending Latour’s research program in at least three ways. First, we include the didactic context in the science network. Second, our objects of investigation are separated in time by a greater gap (about a hundred years). And third, while Latour studied chiefly the empirical sciences, our work is directed towards the Theoretical Physics, raising ontological questions that were not discussed by Latour. To allow this extension, the work is divided in two parts. Part I (Theoretical Framework) presents three papers about Bruno Latour’s ideas and the possibilities of their application in the research on Science Education, what we have called The Symmetric Sociology of Science Education. Part II (Empirical Studies) presents four papers (two about the relation between original papers and undergraduate textbooks and two about the relation between original papers and high school textbooks). The first empirical study presents a metalinguistic analysis of 1905 Einstein’s paper in which the quantum is articulated by the first time without requiring any laboratory trial. In the second paper, we present a conceptual and mathematical analysis of de Broglie’s papers and we use Latour’s ideas to discuss the role of textbooks in the atomization of his theory. In the third paper, we analyze the epistemological visions present in the Physics textbooks approved by the 2015 National Plan of Textbook. In the fourth paper, we discuss the narrative about the photon present in these books departing from a theoretical articulation between Latour’s and Bakhtin’s ideas. Our chief results point to the articulating role of mathematics in the stabilization of physical actants and the active role of textbooks authors in the stabilization of photon through the hybridization of different visions and the use of the mechanisms of reverse causation.

L’Analyse Non Standard (l’ANS) est un formalisme mathématique particulier inventé dans les années 1960 par le mathématicien A. Robinson. Ce formalisme permet de renouer avec les infinitésimaux de Leibniz qui avaient été abandonnés au XIXème siècle pour satisfaire aux exigences nouvelles de la « rigueur ». Sa pertinence a été contestée par divers mathématiciens parmi les plus grands et a donné naissance à une polémique dans les milieux mathématiques français ; les partisans de l’ANS en sont sortis vaincus et ne se sont plus guère exprimés après 1995. Un quart de siècle plus tard l’ANS est considérée au plan international comme une pratique tout à fait légitime et certains mathématiciens, à leur tour parmi les plus grands, en préconisent l’usage.Pourquoi cette mauvaise réception d’idées nouvelles en mathématiques dans un pays réputé pour son excellence dans ce domaine ?Il est normal que des idées révolutionnaires, voire simplement nouvelles, rencontrent de la résistance et suscitent un débat. Toutefois on observe que ce débat qui commençait à prendre de l’importance au début des années 1980 a été étouffé dans les années 1990 par ceux qui avaient en charge les institutions de la communauté mathématique. Pourquoi ce refus du débat ?La thèse soutenue est que, à cette époque, une des fonctions que l’idéologie dominante assigne aux mathématiques est de dire le vrai ; par exemple les théories économiques libérales prétendent à la scientificité parce que fortement mathématisées. Ne dit-on pas c’est mathématique pour affirmer d’une chose qu’elle est inéluctable. Une dispute trop visible sur la nature de la rigueur mathématique aurait risqué de brouiller cette image du mathématicien. Dans le même ordre d’idées, à la même époque, la communauté mathématique (et plus généralement scientifique) avait refusé de débattre avec un de ses membres les plus brillants, A. Grothendieck, de la responsabilité sociale du savant.Cette question de la réception de l’ ANS illustre la thèse bien connue que si une science se développe en partie pour résoudre des problèmes qu’elle se pose à elle même, ici donner un statut logique irréprochable à la pratique des infinitésimaux, cette motivation interne ne suffit pas à elle seule à expliquer tous les aspects de son développement. Les savants doivent tenir compte de la société dans laquelle ils vivent. Il est intéressant de faire ce constat dans le domaine des mathématiques dites pures, c’est à dire qui se prétendent en dehors de toute contrainte et ne travailler que pour l’honneur de l’esprit humain, pour reprendre la célèbre formule de Jacobi. / Non Standard Analysis (ANS) is a particular mathematical formalism invented in the 1960s by the mathematician A. Robinson. This formalism allows to reconnect with the infinitesimals of Leibniz which had been abandoned in the nineteenth century to satisfy the new requirements of rigor. Its relevance has been challenged by various mathematicians among the greatest and gave birth to a controversy in the French mathematical circles ; the supporters of the ANS came out defeated and hardly spoke after 1995. A quarter of a century later, ANS is considered internationally as a perfectly legitimate practice and some mathematicians, including famous ones, advocate its use.Why this bad reception of new ideas in a country renowned for its excellence in the field of mathematical research?It is natural for revolutionaries, or simply news ideas, to be at the origin of resistance and debate. However, we observe that this debate, which was starting and gaining importance in the early 1980’s, was stifled by those who were in charge of the institutions of the mathematical community. Why this refusal of debate?My thesis is that, at this time, one of the functions that the dominant ideology assigned to mathematics was to « say the truth »; for example liberal economic theories claim to scientificity because they are highly mathematized. It is commun to say « it is mathematical » to say that something is unavoidable. A dispute too visible about the nature of mathematical rigor could blur this image of the mathematician. In the same vein, at the same time, the mathematical (and more generally scientific) community had refused to debate with one of its most brilliant members, A. Grothendieck, on the social responsibility of the scientist.This question of the reception of the ANS illustrates the well-known thesis that if a science develops partly to solve problems that it poses to itself, in our case to give an irreproachable logical status to the practice of infinitesimals, this internal motivation is not enough on its own to explain all aspects of its development. Scholars must consider the society in which they live. It is interesting to make this observation in the so-called field of pure mathematics, which claim to be free from all constraints and work only « for the honor of the human mind » to use Jacobi's famous formula.

This dissertation deals with the Czechoslovak and Polish community of "scientists of science" (mainly historians, philosophers, and methodologists of science) from 1962 to 1989. It focuses not only on the inner evolution of this community (scientists, their works, scientific institutions etc.), but it also examines how was this community formed by the tradition of scientific thought on the one hand, and by the contemporary political and ideological context (Soviet influences, Marxism-Leninism, monopoly of the communist party) on the other. It focuses also on the ability of the scientific community to accept or reflect influences from the Western Europe or United States - which means from the so-called "capitalist countries". Two spheres are analysed to clarify dispositions of Polish and Czechoslovak "scientists of science" to foreign transfers: first, scientists' possibilities to travel to Western countries (research stays, participations at congresses etc.), and second, accessibility to foreign (mainly Western) scientific literature. Functioning of Western concepts in the community of Polish and Czechoslovak "scientists of science" is illustrated by an example of the reception of Thomas Kuhn's The Structure of Scientific Revolutions from 1962. This dissertation shows that the role of scientific...

The aim of this study is to examine how social science teachers teach about controversial issues with an emphasis on the Israel-Palestine conflict. The method applied is qualitative semi-structured interviews. The theoretical framework consists of Diana E. Hess four approaches to teach controversial issues, Denial, Privilege, Avoidance and Balance and Itay Pollaks et al. two approaches to teach controversial issues, Sidestepping and Scholastizing. Previous research indicates that teachers avoid addressing controversial issues due to lack of knowledge and concerns about potential disruptions in the classroom. The teaching of the Israel-Palestine conflict is approached cautiously and even though it is done by cautious methods it leads to challenging classroom discussions which are permeated by prejudices and generalizations. Despite these challenges, previous research underscores the importance of teaching controversial issues as a means to develop essential skills, for students to become democratic citizens. The analysis and results indicate that teachers don’t stick to one fixed idea of controversial issues. The challenges the teachers bring up align with previous research, where teachers feel inadequately informed about the Israel-Palestine conflict and that students form prejudiced conclusions about the conflict. The potential of teaching about the Israel-Palestine conflict lies in students developing skills such as societal awareness, critical thinking and tolerance. The results demonstrated that teachers adopt various approaches but the majority of the teachers used Hess balanced and Pollaks et.al scholastizing approach. A new approach was found in the analysis that was not addressed in the theoretical framework, a relational approach.