Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (S. Typhimurium) is a Gram-negative facultative anaerobe that induces severe inflammation resulting in gastroenteritis. In the case of S. Typhimurium infection, induction of an inflammatory response has been linked to its primary virulence mechanism, the type III secretion system (T3SS). The T3SS secretes protein effectors that exploit the host’s cell biology to facilitate bacterial entry and intracellular survival, and to modulate the host immune response. One such effector, SifA, is a bi-functional T3SS effector protein that plays an important role in Salmonella virulence. The N-terminal domain of SifA binds SifA-Kinesin-Interacting-Protein (SKIP), and via an interaction with kinesin, forms tubular membrane extensions called Sif filaments (Sifs) that emanate from the Salmonella Containing Vacuole (SCV). The C-terminal domain of SifA harbors a WxxxE motif that functions to mimic active host cell GTPases. Taken together, SifA functions in inducing endosomal tubulation in order to maintain the integrity of the SCV and promote bacterial dissemination. Since SifA performs multiple, unrelated functions, the objective of this study was to determine how each functional domain of SifA becomes processed. In the present study, we demonstrate that a linker region containing a caspase-3 cleavage motif separates the two functional domains of SifA. To test the hypothesis that processing of SifA by caspase-3 at this particular site is required for function and proper localization of the effector protein domains, we developed two tracking methods to analyze the intracellular localization of SifA. We first adapted a fluorescent tag called phiLOV that allowed for T3SS mediated delivery of SifA and observation of its intracellular colocalization with caspase-3. Additionally, we created a dual-tagging strategy that permitted tracking of each of the SifA functional domains following caspase-3 cleavage to different subcellular locations. The results of this study reveal that caspase-3 cleavage of SifA is required for the proper localization of functional domains and bacterial dissemination. Considering the importance of these events in Salmonella pathogenesis, we conclude that caspase-3 cleavage of effector proteins is a more broadly applicable effector processing mechanism utilized by Salmonella to invade and persist during infection.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a fatal, incurable genetic disease that affects over 30,000 people in the United States alone. People with this disease have a homozygous mutation in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) which causes defects in chloride transport and leads to build up of mucus in the lungs and disruption of function in various organs. CF patients often suffer from chronic bacterial infections within the lungs, wherein the bacteria persist as a biofilm, leading to poor prognosis. Two of these pathogens, Stenotrophomonas maltophilia and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, are often found in the lungs of patients with CF and are an increasing medical concerns due to their intrinsic antimicrobial resistance. Both species can readily form biofilms on biotic and abiotic surfaces such as intravascular devices, glass, plastic, and host tissue. Biofilm formation starts with bacterial attachment to a surface and/or adjacent cells, initiating the acute infection stage. Chronic, long-term infection involves subsequent or concurrent altered genetic regulation, including a downregulation of virulence factors, resulting in the bacteria committing to a sessile lifestyle, markedly different from the planktonic one. Many of these genetic switches from an acute to chronic lifestyle are due to pressures from the host immune system and lead to permanently mutated strains, most likely an adaptive strategy to evade host immune responses. Biofilms are extremely problematic in a clinical setting because they lead to nosocomial infections and persist inside the host causing long-term chronic infections due to their heightened tolerance to almost all antibiotics. Understanding the genetic networks governing biofilm initiation and maintenance would greatly reduce consequences for CF and other biofilm-related infections and could lead to the development of treatments and cures for affected patients. This study showed that in S. maltophilia, isogenic deletion of phosphoglycerate mutase (gpmA) and two chaperone-usher pilin subunits, S. maltophilia fimbrae-1 (smf-1) and cblA, lead to defects in attachment on abiotic surfaces and cystic fibrosis derived bronchial epithelial cells (CFBE). Furthermore, Δsmf-1 and ΔcblA showed defects in long-term biofilm formation, mimicking that of a chronic infection lifestyle, on abiotic surfaces and CFBE as well as stimulating less of an immune response through TNF-α production. This study also showed that in P. aeruginosa, the Type III secretion system (T3SS), an important virulence factor activated during the acute stage of infection, is downregulated when polB, a stress-induced alternate DNA polymerase, is overexpressed. This downregulation is due to post-transcriptional inhibition of the master regulatory protein, ExsA. Taken together, this project highlights important genes involved in the acute and chronic infection lifestyle and biofilm formation in S. maltophilia and genetic switches during the acute infection lifestyle in P. aeruginosa.

Salmonella can reside in healthy animals without the manifestation of any adverse effects on the carrier. If raw products of animal origin are not handled properly during processing or cooked to a proper temperature during preparation, salmonellosis can occur. In this research, microbial aspects related to Salmonella as a food pathogen are investigated. A bioluminescent reporting system was developed for Salmonella to monitor the attachment and growth of the pathogen on food products. Twelve and eleven Salmonella strains from the broiler production continuum were tagged with bioluminescence by plasmid and integration of the lux operon into the chromosome, respectively. To assess the usefulness of bioluminescent Salmonella strains in food safety studies, an attachment model using chicken skin was developed. Variables including washing and temperature were tested in the attachment model to determine the effects on attachment of Salmonella strains to chicken skin, a characteristic that enhances persistence during processing. Additionally, the invasion process for two serovars of Salmonella with differing host tropism was examined with emphasis on the initial establishment of the bacterium in the host. The major facilitator for invasion, type III secretion system, was inactivated through deletion mutation to evaluate invasion of human epithelial cell line by additional means. The difference in host tropism between the two subspecies of Salmonella was also taken into account when evaluating invasion. Results showed that invasion of human epithelial cells can be initiated despite inactivation of the type III secretion system. A serovar of Salmonella that is not typically associated with human illness was also shown to initiate invasion of human epithelial cells, a result that carries public health implication as this serovar has recently been shown to be multi-drug resistant.

The type VI secretion system (T6SS) is a protein export pathway that mediates competition between Gram-negative bacteria by facilitating the injection of toxic effector proteins from attacking cells into target cells. To function properly, many T6SSs require at least one protein that possesses a proline-alanine-alanine-arginine (PAAR) domain. These PAAR domains are often found within large, multi-domain effectors that possess additional N- and C-terminal extension domains whose function in type VI secretion is not well understood. The work described herein uncovers the function of these accessory domains across multiple PAAR-containing effectors. First, I demonstrated that thousands of PAAR effectors possess N-terminal transmembrane domains (TMDs) and that these effectors require a family of molecular chaperones for stability in the cell prior to their export by the T6SS. Our findings are corroborated by co-crystal structures of chaperones in complex with the TMDs of their cognate effectors, capturing the first high-resolution structural snapshots of T6SS chaperone-effector interactions. Second, I characterize a previously undescribed prePAAR effector named Tas1. My work shows that the C-terminus of Tas1 possesses a toxin domain that pyrophosphorylates ADP and ATP to synthesize the nucleotides adenosine penta- and tetraphosphate (hereafter referred to as (p)ppApp). Delivery of Tas1 into competitor cells drives the rapid accumulation of (p)ppApp, depletion of ADP and ATP, and widespread dysregulation of essential metabolic pathways, resulting in target cell death. These findings reveal a new mechanism of interbacterial antagonism, the first characterization of a (p)ppApp synthetase and the first demonstration of a role for (p)ppApp in bacterial physiology. TMD- and toxin-containing PAAR proteins constitute a large family of over 6,000 T6SS effectors found in Gram-negative bacteria. My work on these proteins has uncovered that different regions found within effectors have distinct roles in trafficking between bacterial cells and in the growth inhibition of the target cell. / Dissertation / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) / Bacteria constantly compete with their neighbours for resources and space. The type VI secretion system is a protein complex that facilitates competition between Gram-negative bacteria by facilitating the injection of protein toxins, also known as effectors, from attacking cells into target cells. In this work, I characterize several members of a large family of membrane protein effectors. First, I showed that these effectors require a novel family of chaperone proteins for stability and recruitment to the type VI secretion system apparatus. Second, I characterized the growth-inhibitory properties of one of these effectors in-depth and showed that it possesses a toxin domain that depletes the essential nucleotides ATP and ADP in target cells by synthesizing the nucleotides adenosine penta- and tetraphosphate, (p)ppApp. Together, these studies revealed a new mechanism for the intercellular delivery of membrane protein toxins and uncovered the first known physiological role of a (p)ppApp-synthesizing enzyme in bacteria.

No description available.

Problem: Shigella is a gram-negative enteropathogen that, when passed through fecal particles from one host to the oral cavity of another host, causes an infectious disease known as shigellosis. One of the distinctive features of the infection by Shigella is its ability to bypass its host’s autophagic defenses. It does this through the use of a Type III secretion system, found in gram-negative pathogens like Shigella, which injects virulent proteins into the host cell. One of these proteins is IcsB; however, its exact function is not well understood. This study aims to better understand the role of this protein in the infection. Methods: A yeast two-hybrid screening test is used in this case to examine the interactions between variations of the protein IcsB, and a library of host proteins. Given IcsB’s high yeast toxicity and that resulted in the total absence of yeast colony formation, the first aim was to identify IcsB variants which expression would not prevent yeast growth. The second aim was to use the mutant with reduced cytotoxicity to perform a Y2H screen that will allow for the identification of candidate host proteins interacting with IcsB. Results: Two mutations of the IcsB protein grew in the Y2HG yeast strain, indicating a significant reduction in the protein’s toxicity. Of the cultures that reacted, high stringency and strong interaction was observed between four genes and IcsB proteins. Among the four identified clones that grew, three corresponded to the gene RNF2, while the last one corresponds to a non-coding sequence. Key control experiments revealed that the interaction of IcsB with RNF2 is likely false-positive. Thus, when screened full-length IcsB using new epithelial cells cDNAVI libraries, strong interaction was observed between three genes and our IcsB proteins. All the three genes DDX3X, FANCL, and SGT1 passed the false-positive interaction tests. It is interesting to notice that DDX3X and SGT1 interacted with catalytically active and inactive IcsB, suggesting that the interactions established between IcsB and prey proteins does not require the catalytic - C306A mutation and that IcsB most likely does not function as a protease against these two proteins. By contrast, FANCL bound catalytically inactive, but not catalytically active IcsB, suggesting it could be a substrate of IcsB. The literature provides some support for the putative role of DDX3X, FANCL, and SGT1 in regulating the vacuole escape of Shigella through IcsB action. Conclusion: The aim of this study was to determine the functional of IcsB in the vacuole escape of Shigella. This study successfully identified three candidates interacting partner proteins for IcsB. Key control experiments confirmed the interaction of IcsB with DDX3X, FANCL and SGT1. This study provides a basis for further research, with further study aimed at confirming these results during Shigella infection

Das Flagellum von Salmonella enterica ist eine komplexe molekulare Nanomaschine, die zur Fortbewegung verwendet wird. Die Synthese erfordert die Sekretion extrazellulärer Bausteine durch die Zellhülle. Der Substratexport erfolgt durch ein hochkonserviertes Typ-III-Sekretionssystem. Der Kern des fT3SS ist eine komplexe Proteinsekretionsmaschine, bestehend aus den Proteinen FliPQR und FlhBA. Ziel dieser Arbeit war die molekularen Mechanismen, die eine korrekte Funktion gewährleisten, tiefergehend zu erforschen. Im ersten Kapitel wurden die molekulare Mechanismen der Qualitätskontrolle während der Synthese des fT3SS untersucht. Es wurde kürzlich gezeigt, dass die korrekte Synthese durch das fT3SS-spezifischen Chaperon FliO gewährleistet wird. Ziel war es, den molekularen Mechanismus, wie FliO an diesem Prozess beteiligt ist, aufzuklären. Die Ergebnisse zeigten, dass mehrere Aminosäuren von FliO während der Assemblierung mit FliP interagieren. Des Weiteren wurde die Relevanz des spaltbaren Signalpeptids am N-Terminus von FliP untersucht. Diese Studie zeigt, dass die Anwesenheit des Signalpeptids und seine korrekte Spaltung entscheidend, aber nicht unerlässlich für die Funktion der Flagellen sind. Das fT3SS ist in der Lage Proteine mit einer bemerkenswerten Geschwindigkeit von mehreren tausend Aminosäuren pro Sekunde zu sekretieren. Das zweite Kapitel konzentrierte sich darauf, wie das fT3SS Proteine mit hoher Geschwindigkeit sekretiert, während das Austreten kleiner Moleküle verhindert wird. Unsere Mutationsanalysen zeigten, dass eine Methioninschleife in FliP, eine sperrige Plug-Domäne in FliR und intermolekulare Salzbrücken zwischen FliQ-Untereinheiten zusammenarbeiten, um die Integrität der Membran aufrechtzuerhalten. Diese Arbeit liefert neue Einblicke in die Synthese des fT3SS Kerns und die Regulation der Substratsekretion. Beide Prozesse werden an mehreren Stellen streng kontrolliert, um eine korrekte Funktion des Flagellums sicherzustellen. / The flagellum of Salmonella enterica is a sophisticated molecular nanomachine, which is used for locomotion. Flagella synthesis requires the translocation of extracellular subunits across the cell envelop, which is mediated by a highly conserved type-III secretion system (fT3SS). The core fT3SS is a complex protein secretion machine consisting of the proteins FliPQR and FlhBA. Productive assembly is crucial for flagella function. The molecular mechanisms which ensure correct function of the fT3SS remain poorly understood. In this thesis, we aimed to gain a profound insight into the molecular mechanisms of fT3SS core assembly and function. The first chapter investigated the molecular mechanisms underlying the quality control during the assembly of the fT3SS. It was recently shown that productive assembly of the core fT3SS relies on the flagella-specific chaperone FliO. We aimed to elucidate the molecular mechanism of how FliO facilitates this process. Our results demonstrated, that several residues of FliO are interacting with FliP during the assembly process. Furthermore, we aimed to identify the relevance of the cleavable signal peptide at the N-terminus of FliP. This study showed, that the presence of the signal peptide and its correct cleavage are crucial but not essential for flagella function. The fT3SS is able to secrete proteins with a remarkable speed of several thousand amino acids per second. The second chapter focused on how the fT3SS secretes proteins at high speed while preventing the leakage of small molecules. Our mutational analyses demonstrated that a methionine loop in FliP, a bulky plug domain in FliR and intermolecular salt bridges between FliQ subunits are acting cooperatively to maintain the membrane barrier. Overall, this work provides new insights into the assembly process of the fT3SS core and the regulation of substrate secretion. Both processes are tightly controlled at multiple stages to ensure the proper functioning of the flagellum.

No description available.

No description available.

Bacteria have developed various means of secreting proteins that can enter the host cell membrane. In this work I focus on two systems: cholesterol-dependent cytolysins and Type III Secretion. Cholesterol is a molecule that is critical for physiological processes and cell membrane function. Not only can improper regulation lead to disease, but also the role cholesterol plays in cell function indicates it is an important molecule to understand. In response to this need, probes have been developed that detect cholesterol molecules in membranes. However, it has been recently shown that there is a need for probes that only respond to cholesterol that is accessible at the membrane surface. Perfringolysin O (PFO) is a toxin secreted by Clostridium perfringens that has been developed into a probe capable of detecting accessible cholesterol. Recently, researchers have been expanding the capabilities of this probe by substituting residues, modifying residues, truncating the probe, or a combination of the three. However, lack of characterization of these new probes has led to controversial results. To understand the role of a conserved Cys residue, here we perform cholesterol binding assays and measure the pore formation activity of a Cys modified PFO derivative. The Type III Secretion (T3S) system is a syringe-like apparatus used by various pathogens to inject effector proteins into target cells. The apparatus spans both the inner and outer bacterial membrane, extending to make contact with the host cell where it forms a pore known as the translocon. In Pseudomonas aeruginosa, the translocon is made up of two proteins, PopB and PopD. While recent advances have been made on the structure of the needle and injectisome, information on the translocon remains sparse. In this work, the P. aeruginosa T3S translocon is analyzed using both in vivo and in vitro methods.