This thesis investigated aspects of plant recruitment across an altitudinal gradient of mountain tops in the Victorian Alps, Australia, and provides a baseline for the patterns and processes of alpine plant recruitment in the absence of large-scale disturbance. The patterns in alpine vegetation across the study sites were described in relation to abiotic environmental factors. Temperatures were lower and precipitation was higher at the high altitude sites. The vegetation did not differ significantly between the sites, although sites at low altitudes were shrubbier than those at high altitudes. Analysis of the soil seed bank revealed high mean densities of germinable seed (80 to 1400 seeds m-2) across the gradient of sites. The similarity between the seed bank samples and the standing vegetation was low (qualitative similarity: 0.08 to 0.2; quantitative similarity: 0.03 to 0.19). In laboratory germination experiments, I found rapid and substantial germination. Final percent germination was above 90% for most species. One species, Aciphylla glacialis, showed evidence of dormancy mechanisms. In subsequent experiments, I found that innate primary seed dormancy in this species could be broken with cold-wet stratification. There were no significant patterns in natural seedling recruitment across the altitudinal gradient. Similarities between the seedling flora and the standing vegetation were low (qualitative similarity: 0.18 to 0.45: quantitative similarity 0.04 to 0.09). Mean seedling density was best predicted by a combination of soil wilting point, altitude and plant litter. In some cases, seedling density was greater than 80 seedlings m-2. The relative importance of either negative (competitive) or positive (facilitative) interactions between seedlings with adjacent vegetation were investigated in relation to seed germination, seedling growth and seedling survival. Facilitative interactions were common at the higher altitude sites. At lower altitudes, facilitative and competitive interactions were common. Without close neighbours at high altitudes, seedlings were unlikely to survive into their second year. An understanding of plant recruitment can provide a useful basis for predicting species responses to large-scale disturbance and climate change.

Abstract The aims were to examine the importance of regeneration by seeds, the influence of plant traits and disturbances, and the role of seed-seedling conflicts in regeneration and in the determination of vegetation structure. The study was carried out at in a subarctic alpine area (Kilpisjärvi 69°01'N 20°50E', Finland). Seed bank and seedling densities were high in many plant communities (ranges 99 -1109 viable seeds/m2 and 0.2-227 seedlings/m2, respectively). Effective seedling recruitment is reflected in vegetation as a high proportion of plants with poor or no vegetative reproduction ability. This development may take place in meadows and snowbeds where herbs (e.g. Gnaphalium supinum, Sibbaldia procumbens, Veronica alpina and Viola biflora) are abundant. On the other hand, the low proportion of these plants in heath vegetation reflects ineffective seedling recruitment. Floristic similarities between the consecutive phases in the regeneration pathway may be low despite effective seedling recruitment. Clonality, large and small seed sizes and appendaged diaspores limit the movement of species from phase to phase. Generally, disturbances facilitate effective regeneration by seeds. Grazing promotes species with large seed banks and is therefore one reason for high seed bank densities. Freezing and melting processes negate a negative influence of altitude on seed bank densities in the phase of seedlings. However, if disturbances are severe and continuous and the soil is compact, unstable or dry, disturbances are not beneficial. The same is true if there is a shift in the species composition of seedlings from gaps to closed vegetation. This phenomenon occurred in a rich meadow. Seed-seedling conflicts limit regeneration by seeds in low-herb snowbeds and Ranunculus glacialis-Gymnomitrion snowbeds. Vegetative reproduction and infrequent pulses of seedling recruitment negate an influence of short-term seedling recruitment on the spatial structure of vegetation. Extreme conditions, such as low temperatures, instability of the soil and late snowmelt modify the influence of factors that are important in more moderate conditions. To conclude, all transitions limit regeneration by seeds. However, favourable conditions (e.g. moist conditions in a meadow) partly eliminate the obstacles against seedling emergence. Regeneration by seeds therefore has a major impact on the dynamics and structure of vegetation. In heath vegetation, where bare soils are dry and the moss cover is thick, large seed banks and seed rains do not guarantee effective seedling recruitment. The regeneration process is reduced in the early phases, and plants that reproduce primarily by seeds have a minor role in vegetation. The accumulation of seed banks is effective in these circumstances.

I studied the effect of moderate sheep grazing on a shadscale plant community at the Desert Experimental Range, southwestern Utah, USA, using a 61-yr data set with two grazing treatments (yes vs. no), two seasons (spring vs. winter), and two soil types (loamy-skeletal vs. coarse-loamy). I studied precipitation, total species cover, annuals, shrub survival, seedling recruitment, plant succession, and plant spatial relationships./p> Precipitation showed high variability (CV=31%) masking on short-term cycles, resulting in study intervals with average (1935-58), dry (1958-69), driest (1969-75), and wet (1980-94[5]) regimes. Total cover in both grazed and ungrazed pastures increased between 1935 and 1975 before decreasing to 1994. Treatments diverged with time, however, so cover was higher in ungrazed pastures in 1975 and 1994. Individually, Atriplex confertifolia decreased from 1958-94 and Ceratoides lanata from 1975-94. Artemisia spinescens increased in ungrazed pastures from 1935-94, while remaining very low in grazed pastures. Grasses increased from 1935-94 with little grazing effects. Annuals increased from absence in 1935 to 63% frequency in 1994; precipitation may be related to this increase. Grazing and soil type had few long-term or short effects on shrub survival. Similarly, only C. lanata showed a microhabitat effect, with greater seedling survival in vegetated than open patches. Seedling recruitment was positively correlated with precipitation. Only A. confertifolia recruitment responded to grazing; it was higher in grazed pastures. A fuzzy graph analysis showed a moderate grazing effect on succession. Clumped distributions were common and were unaffected by grazing but increased in wet years. Plant establishment occurred disproportionally in sites occupied or formerly occupied by plants, suggesting facilitation. Negative interference, however, was suggested by new recruitment occurring further from larger existing individuals. Moderate grazing had little effect on spatial relationships. In conclusion, the multivariate approach yielded broader conclusions than any individual factors. Although some factors showed more grazing effects than others, grazing could not completely explain observed changes; climate and inherent plant attributes must also be considered. Management at moderate grazing levels may only play a limited role in shadscale communities.

No description available.

The purpose of this study was to investigate seedling recruitment beneath kanuka forest at Tiromoana Bush, North Canterbury. The regeneration of broadleaved tree species is evident throughout Tiromoana Bush. This research aimed to quantify the biotic and abiotic factors influencing the distribution of small and large seedlings of canopy tree species, their relative growth rates, their survival, abundance and composition throughout the forest understorey of Tiromoana Bush. Tiromoana Bush is a forest restoration area of 410 hectares adjacent to the Kate Valley landfill. To determine the future tree species composition at Tiromoana Bush, seedling recruitment, growth and survival was quantified through remeasuring tagged seedlings in 26 permanent vegetation monitoring plots located in the major forest patches at Tiromoana Bush. In addition, seedling data from 78 temporary vegetation survey plots established in three major forest patches were used to assess the influence of different factors on seedling abundance. At Tiromoana Bush, the most common canopy tree species as seedlings in the permanent vegetation monitoring plots was mahoe followed by fivefinger. Mahoe seedling density was significantly affected by canopy openness, distance to seed sources, light index, shrub cover and slope, but not by aspect, basal area and time. For fivefinger, seedlings increased in abundance with time, but the difference was not statistically significant. The relative growth rate of mahoe in the 20-49cm height class (in which most seedlings occurred) was significantly affected by shrub cover, light index and canopy vii openness. Mahoe seedling recruits were significantly affected by light index and canopy openness. Survivability of mahoe was affected by aspect. For fivefinger, individual relative growth rates were significantly affected by canopy openness and light index. Similar results were found for tree species seedlings present in the temporary survey plots provided with mahoe and fivefinger again the most common species, followed by kohuhu. Light index significantly affected golden akeake small seedlings as well as canopy openness. Light index significantly affected ngaio large seedling distribution. Aspect was the only significant factor for kohuhu large seedling distribution. Distance from seed sources significantly affected fivefinger small seedling distribution as seedlings are dependent upon dispersal away from the parent trees. Slope significantly affected the distribution of red matipou small seedlings. The most important environmental attribute influencing seedling abundance is light. This is evident in both the permanent seedling monitoring plots and the temporary vegetation survey plots. Based on data from the temporary vegetation survey plots, mahoe, fivefinger and kohuhu are most abundant suggesting that these three canopy tree species will dominate the forest canopy at Tiromoana Bush once the kanuka starts to senesce.

The release of the seed eating beetle Sulcobruchus subsuturalis for biological control of Caesalpinia decapetala in South Africa has been ongoing since 2000. This is the first post release evaluation of the efficacy of the agent against the weed. The study assessed the phenology of C. decapetala and S. subsuturalis at two sites and included determining the establishment of the beetle on the target weed at 25 study sites. In addition, the effects of S. subsuturalis on seed densities as well as seed germination and seedling recruitment were examined. Furthermore predation by native ants and attacks by native parasitoids were also examined at two release sites. Mature filled pods were available on the tree from September (spring) to March (summer) when the beetle is expected to be reproductively active. The majority of beetle releases by Working for water took place in summer. However the proportion of beetle infested seeds, which were only recovered inside pods in the tree canopy at study sites, was low (0 to 15.5%). Consequently high seed densities and seedling recruitment were observed in the field. In the laboratory, S. subsuturalis did not lay eggs on buried seeds, however seed infestation levels were generally high. Only 8.3% of the seeds containing adults germinated and 6.3% emerged into seedlings. Of the seeds containing larvae, only 14.6% germinated and 2.1% emerged into seedlings. Thus far, S. subsuturalis has failed to maintain high populations on the target weed, possibly due to egg predation by native ants (Crematogaster species, Pheidole megacephala, Messor natalensis and Tetramorium avium) and attacks by native parasitoids. Egg predation reached 100% within 10 days. Egg parasitism by unknown parasitoids ranged between 80 and 93.1% in Limpopo. The parasitic wasp Dinarmus altifrons was recovered once developing inside a C. decapetala seed infested with S. subsuturalis. Further investigations regarding attacks by indigenous parasitoids on S. subsuturalis are required to determine the extent of this problem. Meanwhile releases of S. subsuturalis against C. decapetala should continue. However release efforts need to be improved by (a) using inundative rather than inoculative releases (b) Releasing every year between September and March (summer) and (c) involving land owners, farmers and nature reserve authorities in release activities. Ultimately an additional agent should be sought for release against C. decapetala as the weed may not be the preferred host for S. subsuturalis.

<p>Fungal pathogens likely play an important role in regulating populations of tree seedlings and preserving forest diversity, due to their ubiquitous presence and differential effects on survival. Host-specific mortality from natural enemies is one of the most widely tested hypotheses in community ecology to explain the high biodiversity of forests. The effects of fungal pathogens on seedling survival are usually discussed under the framework of the Janzen-Connell (JC) hypothesis, which posits that seedlings are more likely to survive when dispersed far from the parent tree or at low densities due to pressure from host-specific pathogens (Janzen 1970, Connell 1971). One of the key challenges to assessing the importance of JC effects has been to identify and quantify the effects of the large numbers of potential pathogens required to maintain host diversity. The primary objectives of this research were to (1) characterize the fungi associated with seedling disease and mortality for a number of important southeastern US forest tree species; and (2) determine if these associations are consistent with the Janzen-Connell hypothesis in terms of differential effects on seedling survival.<br></p><p>Culture-based methods and ribosomal DNA (rDNA) sequencing were used to characterize the fungal community in recently dead and live seedlings of thirteen common tree species in a temperate mixed hardwood forest (North Carolina, USA), with the goal of identifying putative seedling pathogens. Cultures were initially classified and grouped into 130 operational taxonomic units (OTUs) using 96% internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequence similarity; 46% of all OTUs were found only once. Using rarefaction, it was concluded that the richness of the system was not fully sampled and likely included over 200 taxa (based on non-parametric richness estimators). Species richness did not differ between sampling sites or among the five most common hosts sampled. The large ribosomal subunit (LSU) region of rDNA was then sequenced for representative samples of common OTUs and refined identifications using a constrained maximum likelihood phylogenetic analysis. Phylogenetic placement verified strong BLAST classifications, and allowed for placement of unknown taxa to the order level, with many of these unknowns placed in the Leotiomycetes and Xylariales (Sordariomycetes).<br> </p><p>Next, a hierarchical Bayesian model was developed to predict the effects of multiple putative fungal pathogens on individual seedling survival, without forcing the effects of multiple fungi to be additive. The process of disease was partitioned into a chain of events including incidence, infection, detection, and survival, and conditional probabilities were used to quantify each component individually, but in the context of one another. The use of this modeling approach was illustrated by examining the effects of two putative fungal pathogens, <italics>Colletotrichum acutatum</italics> and <italics>Cylindrocarpon</italics> sp. A, an undescribed species of <italics>Cylindrocarpon</italics>, on the survival of five seedling hosts in both a maximum likelihood and Bayesian framework.<br> </p><p>Finally, the model was used to assess the impacts of these fungi on seedling survival, alone and in combination, using data on five potential fungal pathogens and five hosts. Multi-host fungi had differential effects on seedling survival depending on host identity, and multiple infections may impact survival even when single infections do not. Evaluating these interactions among multiple plant and fungal species generates a set of targeted hypotheses of specific plant-fungal combinations that could help us better understand pathogen-driven diversity maintenance at larger scales than previously possible. Building on these results, some recommendations are provided as to how the Janzen-Connell hypothesis can be re-evaluated with respect to host specificity, pathogen distribution, and environmental context.</p> / Dissertation

<p>The mycorrhizal mutualism is one of the earliest and most influential of all terrestrial symbioses. As the primary method used by most plants to acquire nutrients from the soil, mycorrhizal fungi help to shape the structure and composition of many ecosystems. Ectomycorrhizal (EM) fungi play an especially significant role because most EM fungi prefer a limited number of host taxa, and EM plant species likewise associate with only a fraction of the available EM fungi. This host preference issue, combined with the high diversity of EM fungi in forest ecosystems, complicates interspecies competition both among fungi and among plants, because these plant and fungal communities interact.</p><p>Despite recent attempts at documenting mycorrhizal fungi in the context of ecological succession, many questions remain about the underlying causal relationships among EM fungi, soil conditions, and plant community assembly. The succession of mycorrhizal fungi often mirrors the succession of plants, and ectomycorrhizal (EM) community composition may affect the outcome of competition among trees during succession. In a pine-oak seral system, we tested the ability of <italic>Pinus taeda</italic> and <italic>Quercus alba</italic> seedlings to associate with EM fungi when planted under both conspecific and heterospecific adults. We found that EM communities under pine and oak canopy were distinct regardless of seedling identity, indicating that the fungal associations of adult trees determine which EM species are available in the soil. In addition, pine seedlings planted under oak canopy showed decreased mycorrhization and growth compared to those planted under pine canopy, while oak seedlings showed no negative effects of heterospecific planting. This impaired ability of pine seedlings to associate with the EM community established under oaks may deter pine recruitment and facilitate the late-seral replacement of pines with oaks.</p><p>While EM fungal communities correlate with the dominant species of host tree, soil properties do as well, making it difficult to establish causality among these three variables. Soil was collected from oak- and pine-dominated stands and dried to kill off mature mycelium, leaving only the spore bank as a source of inoculum for pine and oak seedlings. EM root tips were collected for molecular identification of fungal species based on ITS barcoding, and soil samples from field and laboratory conditions were analyzed for fungal diversity using 454 sequencing. We found a reduced influence of canopy type and a more pronounced influence of seedling identity when compared to the EM communities on seedlings planted in the field, suggesting that adult trees do alter the availability of fungi by directly promoting the growth of their preferred EM associates.</p><p>The availability of EM fungi can also affect seedlings at the interface between EM- an AM-dominated forest. We tested the hypothesis that seedlings of <italic>Dicymbe corymbosa</italic> which recruit outside of monodominant stands have limited access to EM symbionts compared with those which recruit inside <italic>D. corymbosa</italic> stands. EM root tips and rhizosphere soil were collected from seedlings along two transects inside monodominant stands and three transects in the transition zone into mixed forest dominated by AM associates. Seedlings inside monodominant stands yielded both a greater quantity of mycorrhized root tips and a higher diversity of EM species than transition zone seedlings. Of the fungal families commonly found on adult roots, the Boletaceae were notably underrepresented on all seedlings. In the transition zones, high-throughput sequencing of soil also detected a decrease in EM diversity with distance from the parent tree.</p><p>Seedlings of <italic>D. corymbosa</italic> may benefit from recruiting within monodominant stands by tapping into common mycorrhizal networks (CMNs) to acquire low-cost nitrogen and, potentially, photosynthates produced by conspecific adults. Leaves of stand adults, stand seedlings, and mixed-forest seedlings were collected for stable isotope analysis to track the transfer of nitrogen and carbon through CMNs. The &delta;<super>13</super>C and &delta;<super>15</super>N results contradicted each other, suggesting that more complicated interactions may be playing out among adults, seedlings, and fungi.</p> / Dissertation

Butia odorata (butiazeiro) é uma palmeira que ocorre em regiões subtropicais da América do Sul, onde constitui formações savânicas em áreas associadas com o manejo pecuário. Após a dispersão, suas sementes apresentam dormência, que pode ser superada por tratamentos de calor úmido. Esta tese visou avaliar como esta dormência responde a variáveis térmicas e de umidade do ambiente e de que forma ela influencia o sucesso de recrutamento de suas plântulas. Para isto foram feitos três estudos: no primeiro, os efeitos de diferentes tratamentos de temperatura, secagem e armazenamento dos diásporos sobre o sucesso germinativo da espécie foram avaliados em laboratório; no segundo, foram investigados os efeitos sazonais e de micro-hábitat (área aberta e mancha florestal) sobre a emergência de plântulas a partir de diásporos semeados no campo, relacionando as respostas às variáveis ambientais, à dormência e à viabilidade das sementes; no terceiro, foram igualmente avaliados os efeitos sazonal e de micro-hábitat, porém sobre o sobre o recrutamento de plântulas, através da semeadura em duas épocas distintas do ano (antes e após o verão), de diásporos previamente tratados para superação da dormência. Os resultados destes estudos mostraram que períodos de préaquecimento úmido (40ºC) após secagem dos diásporos atuam no alívio da dormência das sementes de B. odorata. Estes fatores também foram relacionados com a liberação da dormência das sementes em condições de campo, agindo de forma cíclica sobre este processo ao longo do ano. Esta estratégia concentrou a emergência de plântulas após o verão, quando as condições térmicas e hídricas foram mais favoráveis. Esta resposta foi potencializada pela presença de manchas florestais, que prolongaram a viabilidade das sementes e aumentaram o recrutamento de plântulas. / Butia odorata (pindo palm) is a palm tree that occurs in the subtropical regions of South America, where it composes a savanna-like vegetation in areas associated with livestock. After dispersal, seeds exhibit dormancy, which can be overcome by moist heat treatments. This thesis aimed to evaluate how such dormancy responds to thermal and moisture variables of the environment and how it influences the success of seedlings recruitment. To accomplish this, three studies were conducted: in the first, the effects of different temperature, drying and storage treatments imposed to the diaspores on the germination success of the species were evaluated in the laboratory; in the second, we investigated the effects the seasonal and microhabitat (open area vs. forest patch) on seedling emergence from diaspores sown in the field, and related the responses to environmental variables, dormancy and seed viability; in the third, the seasonal and microhabitat effects were also evaluated, but now on seedling recruitment, by doing the sowing at two different times of the year (before and after the summer) of seeds which had been previously treated for overcoming dormancy. The results of these studies showed that periods of wet preheating (40 °C) after seed drying act on relieving seed dormancy of B. odorata. These factors were also related to the release of seed dormancy under field conditions, acting in a cyclical way along the year. This strategy concentrated seedling emergence after the summer, when temperature and water conditions were more favorable. This response was enhanced by the presence of forest patches, which extended seed viability and increased seedling recruitment.

Butia odorata (butiazeiro) é uma palmeira que ocorre em regiões subtropicais da América do Sul, onde constitui formações savânicas em áreas associadas com o manejo pecuário. Após a dispersão, suas sementes apresentam dormência, que pode ser superada por tratamentos de calor úmido. Esta tese visou avaliar como esta dormência responde a variáveis térmicas e de umidade do ambiente e de que forma ela influencia o sucesso de recrutamento de suas plântulas. Para isto foram feitos três estudos: no primeiro, os efeitos de diferentes tratamentos de temperatura, secagem e armazenamento dos diásporos sobre o sucesso germinativo da espécie foram avaliados em laboratório; no segundo, foram investigados os efeitos sazonais e de micro-hábitat (área aberta e mancha florestal) sobre a emergência de plântulas a partir de diásporos semeados no campo, relacionando as respostas às variáveis ambientais, à dormência e à viabilidade das sementes; no terceiro, foram igualmente avaliados os efeitos sazonal e de micro-hábitat, porém sobre o sobre o recrutamento de plântulas, através da semeadura em duas épocas distintas do ano (antes e após o verão), de diásporos previamente tratados para superação da dormência. Os resultados destes estudos mostraram que períodos de préaquecimento úmido (40ºC) após secagem dos diásporos atuam no alívio da dormência das sementes de B. odorata. Estes fatores também foram relacionados com a liberação da dormência das sementes em condições de campo, agindo de forma cíclica sobre este processo ao longo do ano. Esta estratégia concentrou a emergência de plântulas após o verão, quando as condições térmicas e hídricas foram mais favoráveis. Esta resposta foi potencializada pela presença de manchas florestais, que prolongaram a viabilidade das sementes e aumentaram o recrutamento de plântulas. / Butia odorata (pindo palm) is a palm tree that occurs in the subtropical regions of South America, where it composes a savanna-like vegetation in areas associated with livestock. After dispersal, seeds exhibit dormancy, which can be overcome by moist heat treatments. This thesis aimed to evaluate how such dormancy responds to thermal and moisture variables of the environment and how it influences the success of seedlings recruitment. To accomplish this, three studies were conducted: in the first, the effects of different temperature, drying and storage treatments imposed to the diaspores on the germination success of the species were evaluated in the laboratory; in the second, we investigated the effects the seasonal and microhabitat (open area vs. forest patch) on seedling emergence from diaspores sown in the field, and related the responses to environmental variables, dormancy and seed viability; in the third, the seasonal and microhabitat effects were also evaluated, but now on seedling recruitment, by doing the sowing at two different times of the year (before and after the summer) of seeds which had been previously treated for overcoming dormancy. The results of these studies showed that periods of wet preheating (40 °C) after seed drying act on relieving seed dormancy of B. odorata. These factors were also related to the release of seed dormancy under field conditions, acting in a cyclical way along the year. This strategy concentrated seedling emergence after the summer, when temperature and water conditions were more favorable. This response was enhanced by the presence of forest patches, which extended seed viability and increased seedling recruitment.