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Sedimentary rock-hosted deposits are a major source of copper and cobalt, with the Neoproterozoic central African Copperbelt being among the largest Cu-Co provinces in the world, accounting for around 15% of its copper resource. The deposits occur primarily in the carbonates and siliciclastic sediments overlying the basement, and formed during early diagenesis (around 820 Ma) and late diagenesis/metamorphism during the Pan-African Orogeny (580-520 Ma). The northwest province of Zambia hosts three major copper deposits, amongst which is Kansanshi: the focus of this study. The deposit, which lies north of the Solwezi dome, is hosted within the Katangan Supergroup, particularly within the carbonaceous phyllites and porphyroblastic schists of the Mshwaya subgroup and lower Nguba Group and extends along the strike length of the North-West trending Kansanshi antiform. In this study, tomographic inversion is applied to first arrival refraction data collected at the Kansanshi Copper Mine with the aim of locating potential copper-bearing structures.  The survey was carried out using both dynamite and VIBSIST sources along 3 profiles; 2 trending North-East across the Kansanshi anticline and 1 trending north-west parallel to it. Seismic refraction tomography is an excellent tool for investigating the shallow subsurface, providing a velocity distribution. Unlike conventional refraction seismics, it allows for the velocity calculation of each cell in a non-homogeneous earth model, rather than just the average velocity of individual layers - allowing us to map structure and infer geological units and weathering profiles. The data highlights abundant faulting and varying depth to fresh bedrock. The various lithologies have also been interpreted.

During 1979, an oil prospecting project was initiated in the south of Sweden, outside the coast of the municipality of Skåne. No drilling program was initiated, and the project was put on ice. However, with the oil prices of today and the interest in carbon dioxide storage, the area could once again be interesting. In this thesis, 3 seismic lines have been reprocessed with new software, Claritas, in an attempt to obtain information of the area. The thesis is also thought of as an easy to read tutorial as to how oil prospecting works. The result of the reprocessing showed that the new software could reduce multiples and high- and low frequency noise with an fx-decon filter. / Under 1979 inleddes ett projekt med oljeprospektering utanför Skånes kust i södra Sverige. Inget borrprogram initierades och projektet lades ned. Med dagens oljebrist och intresset för koldioxidförvaring så skulle området än en gång kunna vara intressant. I detta examensarbete har därför 3 seismiklinjer omprocesserats med ny programvara, Claritas, i ett försök att förbättra vår bild av detta område. Examensarbetet är även tänkt att fungera som en inledande litteratur om hur oljeprospektering fungerar. Resultatet av omprocesseringen av seismikdatat visade att man med den nya programvaran kunde reducera multipler och hög- och lågfrekvent brus med ett fx-decon filter.

Reflection seismic and seismic tomography methods can be used to image the upper kilometer of hard bedrock and the loose unconsolidated sediments covering it. Developments of these two methods and their application, as well as identifying issues concerning their usage, are the main focus of the thesis. Data used for this development were acquired at three different sites in Sweden, in Forsmark 140 km north of Stockholm, in the Oskarshamn area in southern Sweden, and in the northern part of the Siljan Ring impact crater area. The reflection seismic data were acquired with long source-receiver offsets relative to some of the targeted depths to be imaged. In the initial processing standard steps were applied, but the uppermost part of the sections were not always clear. The longer offsets imply that pre-stack migration is necessary in order to image the uppermost bedrock as clearly as possible. Careful choice of filters and velocity functions improve the pre-stack migrated image, allowing better correlation with near-surface geological information. The seismic tomography method has been enhanced to calculate, simultaneously with the velocity inversion, optimal corrections to the picked first break travel times in order to compensate for the delays due to the seismic waves passing through the loose sediments covering the bedrock. The reflection seismic processing used in this thesis has produced high-quality images of the upper kilometers, and in one example from the Forsmark site, the image of the uppermost 250 meters of the bedrock has been improved. The three-dimensional orientation of reflections has been determined at the Oskarshamn site. Correlation with borehole data shows that many of these reflections originate from fracture zones. The developed seismic tomography method produces high-detail velocity models for the site in the Siljan impact area and for the Forsmark site. In Forsmark, detailed estimates of the bedrock topography were calculated with the use of the developed tomography method.

Controlled source seismic methods were employed in this study to investigate the reflectivity and velocity structure of two Hercynian orogens – the Uralides and Variscides. Conventional common depth point (CDP) sections from five reflection seismic campaigns and a velocity model obtained from tomographic inversion of wide-angle observations were the main datasets studied from the Middle Urals. These were complemented with the near-vertical seismic sections and velocity models from the Southern Urals. In the Variscides, conventional CDP processing, along with non-standard processing and synthetic data modeling, were used to obtain and interpret reflection seismic images of the Southwestern Iberian crust. Although, the Uralian and Variscan belts were formed in Late Paleozoic time in apparently similar plate collisional settings, a comparison of the seismic results show that the crust of these two orogens looks quite different at depth. In the Urals, collision of Baltica with Asian terranes (Siberia and Kazakhstan) resulted in a highly diversely reflective crust of 40-45 km thickness. The axial zone of the orogen is characterized by a high velocity crustal root of diffuse reflectivity and an imbricated Moho, with a crustal thickness reaching 55-60 km. The Moho discontinuity is marked by a sharp decrease in reflectivity and is well imaged in most locations except in the crustal root zone. The Southwestern Iberian Variscan crust is 30-35 km thick and is characterized by a highly reflective two-layered structure that resulted from collision of Luarussia and Gondwana, including terranes in-between them. This type of crustal structure is very similar to those imaged in other regions of the Variscan belt in the Europe. The Moho discontinuity is flat and appears to be the deepest reflection. This thesis compares the deep structure of the two orogens and interprets mountain building processes related to late Paleozoic plate movements.

<p>Reflection seismic and seismic tomography methods can be used to image the upper kilometer of hard bedrock and the loose unconsolidated sediments covering it. Developments of these two methods and their application, as well as identifying issues concerning their usage, are the main focus of the thesis. Data used for this development were acquired at three different sites in Sweden, in Forsmark 140 km north of Stockholm, in the Oskarshamn area in southern Sweden, and in the northern part of the Siljan Ring impact crater area.</p><p>The reflection seismic data were acquired with long source-receiver offsets relative to some of the targeted depths to be imaged. In the initial processing standard steps were applied, but the uppermost part of the sections were not always clear. The longer offsets imply that pre-stack migration is necessary in order to image the uppermost bedrock as clearly as possible. Careful choice of filters and velocity functions improve the pre-stack migrated image, allowing better correlation with near-surface geological information.</p><p>The seismic tomography method has been enhanced to calculate, simultaneously with the velocity inversion, optimal corrections to the picked first break travel times in order to compensate for the delays due to the seismic waves passing through the loose sediments covering the bedrock.</p><p>The reflection seismic processing used in this thesis has produced high-quality images of the upper kilometers, and in one example from the Forsmark site, the image of the uppermost 250 meters of the bedrock has been improved. The three-dimensional orientation of reflections has been determined at the Oskarshamn site. Correlation with borehole data shows that many of these reflections originate from fracture zones. </p><p>The developed seismic tomography method produces high-detail velocity models for the site in the Siljan impact area and for the Forsmark site. In Forsmark, detailed estimates of the bedrock topography were calculated with the use of the developed tomography method.</p>

Submarine groundwater discharge (SGD) can be an important pathway for nutrients entering coastal systems. However SGD flow paths can be difficult to identify and flow volumes difficult to quantify. This study assesses whether geophysical techniques are potentially cost effective methods for detecting the presence or lack of SGD within an estuary environment found in Sarasota Bay, Florida. In this area, a rapid increase in urbanization has led to increased nitrogen loading into the bay, with some 10% of this loading attributed to SGD. Discharging groundwater is expected to be fresher and hence higher resistivity, than "background" surface waters. Thus resistivity surveys sensitive to seafloor conductivities may be useful for identifying zones of SGD. However, terrain resistivities are influenced by matrix geology as well as pore water resistivity. In this study we compare the results of marine resistivity surveys against both geochemical measures of SGD (radon tra cers) and seismic profiles indicative of subsurface structure to better determine the relative impacts of geology and SGD on marine resistivity measurements in Sarasota Bay. On both regional (kilometers to tens of kilometers) and local scales (hundreds of meters) the relationship between marine resistivity and tracer-based SGD estimates does not follow the expected pattern of higher resistivities associated with higher SGD flux. Seafloor resistivities instead appear primarily influenced by stratigraphy, particularly the presence of a clay layer at ~10-15 m depth in the southern part of the bay. In the southern bay, resistivities decrease at the depths associated with the clay layer. On the local (hundreds of meters) scale, lateral variations in resistivities derived from inversions of resistivity data were not found to be reproducible; nearly-coincident lines collected 30 minutes apart in time show different local signatures. This apparent local lateral variability in the resistivi ty profiles is inferred to be a result of inversion of noisy streaming resistivity data.

The Skellefte District (SD) is one of the richest metallogenic mining areas in Sweden. The main deposits consist of volcanic-hosted massive sulphides (VHMS) rich in zinc, copper, lead, gold and silver, that have been explored and mined for more than a century. Considering that technological advancements allow deeper mining, and that today new discoveries rarely occur, renewed efforts are now directed at locating targets at greater depths.   Thus, current exploration strategies need to be adapted, and a better understanding of regional scale structures is necessary. To address these questions the project VINNOVA 4D modeling of the Skellefte District was launched. Its main purpose is to unravel the regional structures and tectonic setting of the SD. To accomplish this, new geological and geophysical data have been acquired in two key localities. This thesis presents the contribution from 2D and 3D inversion of magnetotelluric (MT) data and seismic reflection data. The main findings include: conductive hydrothermally altered zones within the otherwise resistive rocks of the Skellefte Group, the depth extension of early and postorogenic intrusions, prominent shear zones in the central part of the district, and enhanced reflectivity and conductivity at the base of the Skellefte Group throughout the SD. Even though the application of these methods is challenged by the complex geological setting of the SD, it is shown that after a careful processing and analysis of the data, they are able to provide a robust image of the deep subsurface. Additionally, the combination of reflection seismics and MT has proved to be a powerful tool for hypothesis testing and to develop the general understanding of the configuration and history of the SD. Furthermore, two 3D inversion models of MT data are presented and compared with the results of standard 2D determinant inversions. The 3D procedure shows significant improvements in data fit and is able to constrain better the observed model features. Although 3D inversion of MT data is not yet a run of the mill scheme and issues like model assessment and galvanic distortion effects need to be further addressed, results from complex environments with areal coverage, are already superior to those from 2D inversions. / Skellefteåfälten är ett av de viktigaste malmdistrikten i Sverige. Malmkropparna består av vulkaniskvärda Massiva Sulfider (VHMS) rika på Zink, Koppar, Bly, Guld och Silver, och har utforskats och brutits i mer än ett sekel. Med tanke på att de senaste tekniska framstegen tillåter djupare brytning, och att nya upptäckter är ovanliga idag, riktas nya ansträngningar mot att lokalisera malm på större djup. Aktuella prospekteringsstrategier måste därför anpassas, och en bättre förståelse av regionala strukturer är nödvändig. För att lösa dessa frågor lanserades projektet VINNOVA 4D modeling of the Skellefte District. Dess främsta syfte är att utreda de regionala strukturerna och det tektoniska läget av Skelleftefältet. För att uppnå detta, har nya geologiska och geofysiska data insamlats vid två viktiga platser i distriktet. Denna avhandling presenterar bidrag från inversionsmodellering i 2D och 3D av magnetotelluriska (MT) data samt resultaten av en reflektionsseismisk profil. De viktigaste resultaten är: bra ledande hydrotermiskt förändrade zoner inom de annars resistiva bergarterna i Skellefte-gruppen, djupet till tidiga och postorogeniska intrusioner, framstående skjuvzoner i den centrala delen av området, och ökad reflektionsförmåga och konduktivitet vid basen av Skellefte-gruppen i hela fältet. Även om tillämpningen av dessa metoder utmanas av fältens komplexa geologiska läge, visas det efter en noggrann bearbetning och analys av data att de ger en robust bild av den lite djupare berggrunden. Dessutom har kombinationen av reflektionsseismik och MT visat sig vara ett kraftfullt verktyg för hypotesprövning och för att utveckla den allmänna förståelsen av Skelleftefältet och dess historia. Därutöver presenteras två 3D inversionsmodeller av MT data och jämförs sedan med resultaten från 2D determinantinversioner. 3D tekniker visar betydande förbättringar av datapassform och begränsar observerade anomalier bättre. Även om 3D inversion av MT data ännu inte är en vanlig teknik och frågor som modellbedömning och galvaniska distorsionseffekter måste behandlas ytterligare, är resultat från komplexa miljöer med lagom yttäckning redan överlägsna. / VINNOVA 4D modeling of the Skellefte District

Les mesures microtectoniques, les coupes et les logs lithostratigraphiques, les données de forages pétroliers et les profils sismiques, en Tunisie nord-orientale onshore et offshore, montrent: (i) une variation latérale et en profondeur des séries lithostratigraphiques, (ii) une série de structures faillées en subsurface, caractérisées par des plis de direction N45°, des failles inverses et des décrochements N90-110° dextres et N160-180° sénestres auxquels sont associés des bassins. Les déformations tectoniques reconnues par les données sismiques n'affectent que des zones étroites, allongées et orientées selon trois directions majeures: N45°, N100-120° et N160-180°. Les données microtectoniques ont dévoilé une dominance de fractures NW-SE, NNE-SSW et NE-SW à ENE-WSW respectivement sur les formations du Valenginien-Tortonien, Aptien et Yprésien, et Aptien, Yprésien et Langhien. L'association de toutes les données a permis de mettre en évidence: (a) une phase extensive au Crétacé de direction moyenne N110° matérialisée par des failles normales subméridiennes, NW-SE à WNW-ESE dextres, ENE-WSW à NE-SW senestres, (b) une compression de direction NW-SE pendant l'Eocène, (c) une extension de direction NE-SW à l'Oligocène, (d) une compression de direction NW-SE au Tortonien suivie par (e) une distension NE-SW au Messinien et enfin (f) une compression au Pliocène de direction NW-SE. Ces phases alpine et atlasique s'amortissent vers l'Est lors de la transition onshore-offshore et leur ampleur diminue d'Ouest et Nord-Ouest vers l'Est. On y observe des zones fortement faillées et plissées, alors que vers l'Est elles sont faillées et structurées en horsts et en grabens. Les réservoirs sont bien développés et sont de deux types : (i) carbonatés et fracturés (formations Abiod, Métlaoui, Souar et Chérahil, et Aïn Grab) et (ii) siliciclastiques (formations Birsa et Saouaf). Les roches mères qui constituent les formations Fahdène, Métlaoui, Bou Dabbous et El Gueria, ont alimenté ces réservoirs. Des pièges tantôt structuraux, associés à des structures plissées et fermées par failles, tantôt stratigraphiques, induits par changement de faciès, se sont développés suite à ces phases de compression. Les séries argileuses épaisses des formations El Haria, Souar et Chérahil, et Oum Dhouil constituent de bonnes couvertures continues qui scellent les structures des réservoirs. Les inversions structurales et la tectonique tangentielle en Tunisie orientale jouent un rôle important dans la structuration de la couverture et de l'évolution du système pétrolier. / Microtectonic measurements, the lithostratigraphic cross-sections and logs, the data of oil drillings and the seismic profiles, in north-eastern Tunisia onshore and offshore, show: (i) a side and in-depth variation of the lithostratigraphic series, (ii) a series of faulted structures at subsurface, characterized by folds oriented N45°, reverse faults and N90-110° dextral and N160-180° sinistral strike-slips associated with basins. The tectonic deformations recognized by the seismic data affect only narrow zones, lengthened and oriented according to three major directions: N45°, N100-120° and N160-180°. The microtectonic data revealed a predominance of fractures NW-SE, NNE-SSW and NE-SW to ENE-WSW on the formations of Valenginian-Tortonian and Ypresian Aptian and Aptian, Ypresian and Langhian, respectively. The associations of all data helped to identify: (a) an extensive phase Cretaceous in age, ~N110° oriented and materialized by NS normal faults, NW-SE to WNW-ESE dextral and ENE-WSW to NE-SW sinistral faults, (b) a NW-SE compression during the Eocene, (c) a NE-SW Oligocene extension, (d) a NW-SE Tortonian compression followed by (e) a NE-SW Messinian distension and (f) a NW-SE Pliocene compression. These Alpine and Atlassic phases decrease eastwards at the onshore-offshore transition and their magnitude decreases from the West and Northwest to the East, where strongly folded and faulted zones can be observed, whereas Eastwards they are faulted and structured in folds and troughs. The reservoirs are well developed and are of two types: (i) carbonated and fractured (Abiod, Métlaoui, Souar and Chérahil, and Aïn Grab formations) and (ii) siliciclastic (Birsa and Saouaf formations). Sometimes structural traps, associated with structures folded and closed by faults, sometimes stratigraphic, induced by change of facies, developed following these compression stages. The bed rocks which constitute the Fahdène, Métlaoui, Bou Dabbous and El Gueria formations, supplied these reservoirs. The thick argillaceous series of the El Haria, Souar and Chérahil, and Oum Dhouil formations constitute good continuous covers which seal the structures of the reservoirs. The structural inversions and thrusting in Eastern Tunisia play a significant role in the structuring of the cover and the evolution of the oil system.