Many studies have investigated web-based learning in higher education and the effects it has on academic performance including self-regulation (Janicki & Liegle, 2001; MacDonald, Stodel, Farres, Breithaupt, & Gabriel, 2001; McKeachie, 1999). While many theoretical and operational definitions exist on self-regulation, researchers agree that it includes metacognitive, motivational, and behavioral factors of one's learning process (Zimmerman, 1990). Metacognitive self-regulation refers to an individual who "plans, sets goals, organizes, self-monitors, and self-evaluates at various points during the process of acquisition" (Zimmerman, 1990, pp. 4-5). While some studies have examined the relationship between academic self-regulation and web-based learning in higher education, researchers believe that the relationship requires further investigation (e.g., Hodges, 2005; Whipp & Chiarelli, 2004). One element of the relationship that Hodges identifies as requiring further study is guided self-regulation for students in web-based courses. He states that "research indicates that building self-regulatory scaffolding into web-based course or simply providing instruction on self-regulation can be effective components of a course" (p. 381). Given Hodges' emphasis on self-regulatory guidance, also supported by Pintrich (1999) and Ley and Young (2001), the author believes that well-written instructional course objectives can provide students in web-based courses with self-regulatory guidance. To date, online searches with several key terms related to syllabus(or syllab*), instructional objectives, and self-regulation in any medium (e.g., face-to-face or online course) using PsycARTICLES, PsychINFO, ERIC, and Google Scholar have not yielded any relevant results. While no studies seem to exist in this area, McKeachie (1999) and Ford (2002) discuss the elements of a good syllabus (e.g., course goals) related to the positive effects on academic performance, which include clear instructional objectives. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between instructional objectives as it affects academic self-regulation and academic performance among undergraduate students enrolled in a web-based class and a non-web-based class. / Educational Psychology

Although existing research has evaluated various cognitive, behavioral, physiological, and environmental risk factors for depression (Johnson, Cuellar, & Miller, 2009), previous studies have typically focused on the content of cognitive styles and coping styles when evaluating vulnerability to depression (e.g., Alloy et al., 2006; Compas et al., 2009). However, recent research has suggested that the ability to flexibly engage in different thoughts, strategies, and behaviors that fit situational demands may be most indicative of psychological health (Bonanno & Burton, 2013; Fresco, Williams, & Nugent, 2006a; Kashdan & Rottenberg, 2010). Existing studies have typically evaluated inflexibilities in isolation without examining commonalities among these factors, and few studies have evaluated inflexibilities as prospective predictors of depression within a vulnerability-stress framework. Thus, the present study was designed to examine (1) which forms of cognitive, behavioral, and psychophysiological inflexibility confer vulnerability to depressive symptoms, particularly when individuals are confronted with life stressors, (2) whether elevations in depressive symptoms prospectively predict decreases in coping flexibility and explanatory flexibility and increases in rumination, and (3) the extent to which explanatory and coping flexibilities are associated with other cognitive, behavioral, and physiological indices of flexibility. A sample of 187 university students completed a multi-wave study, which included a baseline assessment of components of cognitive, behavioral, and autonomic flexibility and symptoms of depression, and four follow-up waves (once every three weeks) assessing the occurrence of negative life events, event-specific explanatory and coping flexibilities, and symptoms of depression. Hierarchical linear modeling was used to test the hypotheses that baseline inflexibilities would predict prospective symptoms of depression, particularly when individuals encountered high levels of negative life events relative to their own mean level of events. Partial support for these hypotheses was found. Deficits in set-shifting predicted greater prospective symptoms of depression. Extreme attributions, brooding, and deficits in cognitive inhibition, autonomic reactivity and recovery interacted with negative life events to predict prospective symptoms of depression. Additionally, elevations in depressive symptoms predicted prospective increases in the use of rumination, but did not predict reductions in explanatory or coping flexibilities. Extreme pessimistic attributions were associated with set-shifting deficits and lack of autonomic flexibility, whereas coping flexibility was associated with greater autonomic flexibility. Overall, the results suggest that assessing components of inflexibility may help to identify individuals who are vulnerable to experiencing depression. They also suggest that enhancing flexibility is a possible mechanism by which interventions (e.g., mindfulness training) may reduce vulnerability to depression. / Psychology

Self-control exertion leads to performance decrements during tasks demanding of muscular and cardiovascular systems (Bray et al., 2008; Marcora et al., 2009). Several reviews have also implicated self-control depletion with the psychobiological state of fatigue (Hagger et al., 2010; Van Cutsem et al., 2017). In this state, individuals have also been noted to report higher levels of perceived exertion when exercising at vigorous intensities (MacMahon et al., 2014; Marcora et al., 2009; Wagstaff et al., 2014). The purpose of this study was to investigate physical performance and ratings of perceived exertion during a self-paced maximum distance cycling trial (MDT) following a short bout of mentally-fatiguing cognitive activity (thought-suppression). Recreationally active participants (N = 16, Mage = 20.94) completed one familiarization session and two testing sessions. All visits were separated by ≥ 72-hours. Control and experimental trials were counterbalanced, with either a 6-minute bout of thought-logging (control) or a 6-minute bout of thought-suppression (experimental) being performed prior to each respective MDT. Ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) were solicited from participants across three sensory domains relevant to MDT task performance (Leg-muscle, Respiration, Mental). Thought-suppression was perceived to be significantly more demanding than the control task, which resulted in significantly higher ratings of mental fatigue (p = 0.04, 2 = 0.26). Distance travelled on the MDT was not significantly different following thought suppression, relative to control trials (p = 0.84, 2 = 0.00). Similarly, a repeated-measures ANOVA showed no differences in HR between conditions (p = 0.95, 2 = 0.00). Despite these similarities, ratings of perceived leg-muscle exertion (RPE-L) were significantly higher during the MDT following thought-suppression (p = 0.05, 2 = 0.24). RPE-R (respiration) and RPE-M (mental) ratings also trended towards higher scores following the experimental manipulation, although they did not differ significantly. RPE-L was perceived to be significantly higher than both RPE-R and RPE-M in both conditions on the MDT (ps < 0.05). RPE-M was rated significantly lower than RPE-L and RPE-R during MDTs in both conditions (ps < 0.05). Results indicate that performing a demanding self-control exertion task for a short duration leads to increased feelings of mental fatigue. The observed levels of fatigue were also associated with higher than normal ratings of perceived exertion during cycling tasks of equal demands and performance. / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc) / Any thought, emotion or behaviour that an individual modifies in order to better suit their goals occurs as a result of self-control exertion. Research indicates that just like the exertion of muscular strength, exerting self-control impacts subsequent attempts to do so. Using a mentally-demanding task, we induced states of self-control depletion which left individuals feeling mentally-fatigued. As a result of this state, participants needed to exert themselves harder in order to complete a task that was perceived less demanding, when non-fatigued.

Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is a chronic disease that is due to the dysregulation of glucose in the blood when insulin is not made endogenously. Patients rely on a combination of exogenic insulin, medications, blood glucose monitoring, and healthy lifestyle activities such as dietary control and exercise to manage their blood glucose levels. T1D typically begins its onset during childhood or adolescence, where it may also affect the development of executive function (EF) processes which are also relevant for self-regulation, or goal-directed behavior. This in turn may affect individuals’ adherence to their T1D management regimens, which can result in severe short- and long-term complications. Despite evidence for the plasticity of EF during childhood, previous research has not frequently focused on EF or self-regulation (SR) as a possible mechanism for improving health outcomes in adolescents with T1D. This study focused on the dosage of EF training and its possible effects on both cognitive and health outcomes for 47 adolescents (M= 15.4, SD =1.45) with T1D undergoing a larger adherence intervention. EF was measured by the Digit Span and Go/No-Go tests, while composite measures of T1D treatment adherence were aggregated via separate parent and adolescent reports. It was hypothesized that both cognitive measures and treatment adherence would have a dose-dependent relationship with n-back training. However, no association was found between training dosage and EF outcomes or treatment adherence. The study’s limitations include a relatively small sample size along with low participant compliance for the EF training. It also might be that the relationship between EF, SR, and health behaviors is more nuanced than previously suggested and that there are a variety of reasons why dosage of training was not linked to differential outcomes. As such, further investigation is required to better understand this relationship in the search for effective interventions for health behavior. / M.S. / Adolescents with Type 1 Diabetes often demonstrate difficulty following their diabetes management plans. One potential reason for these challenges may be that their self-regulation (the ability to intentionally direct their behavior towards a goal) is still developing. This study examined whether there was a dose-response relationship between a cognitive intervention aimed at increasing cognition/self-regulation as well as adherence to diabetes management regimens. The sample included 47 adolescents whose mean age was 15 years. Overall, no effect of dosage of cognitive training was observed on the adolescents' cognitive performance or diabetes management adherence. Reasons for this finding include the study's small sample size, low participation in the cognitive training, or a more nuanced relationship between self-regulation and health behavior.

One-third of the American population is obese (1), and of those successful at losing weight, most return to their baseline weight within three to five years (2). In an effort to increase the success of weight loss maintenance (WTLM), research has focused on strategies that promote self-regulation (3). Self-regulation strategies, such as daily self-monitoring of body weight (4), increased step count (5, 6), and increased fruit and vegetable intake (7) have proven to be effective in long-term WTLM interventions. To date, increased water consumption has not been researched as a WTLM strategy, yet it has been shown to decrease meal energy intake (8, 9) and increase weight loss among middle-aged and older adults (10). The purpose of our first investigation was to determine if self-monitoring of increased water consumption facilitates WTLM over 12 months among middle-aged to older adults, when combined with other self-regulation strategies. Our second investigation was a review of WTLM literature to determine the translation potential published interventions using the RE-AIM (Reach, Efficacy/effectiveness, Adoption, Implementation, Maintenance) framework (11) to provide recommendations for future research. Our first main finding was that weekly tracking of these self-regulatory behaviors (self-weighing, step counts, fruit/vegetable intake) for 12 months promotes effective long-term WTLM among middle-aged and older adults. However, daily self-monitoring of increased water consumption (48 fl oz/day) did not appear to provide an additional benefit. Secondly, we have identified significant gaps in the WTLM literature that may hinder the translatability of existing effective interventions. Specifically, current WTLM research is limited in reporting important external validity factors (e.g. costs, adoption, participation rate). Available WTLM literature provided a more detailed overview of Reach, Efficacy, and Implementation, yet was little information on potential adoption, costs, or sustainability. Future work in this area should address these factors to increase the translation potential of WTLM interventions in clinical or community settings. / Ph. D.

The present research expanded upon the work of Breland and Donovan (in press) and examined the role of three-dimensional state goal orientation in an integrative model of goal setting and task performance. In addition, mental focus (Lee, Sheldon, & Turban, 2003) was also incorporated into the model. Results indicated that each of the three-dimensions of state goal orientation uniquely affected one's level of self-efficacy. More specifically, state learning goal orientation and state performance-approach goal orientation both enhanced an individual's level of self-efficacy, while state performance-avoidance goal orientation reduced their level of self-efficacy. In turn state goal orientation indirectly impacted mental focus, goals, and performance through its influence on self-efficacy. Implications of these findings as well as suggestions for future research on the personality construct of state goal orientation are discussed. / Ph. D.

The purpose of this study was to determine the perceptions of mentors regarding the impact of a school-based mentoring program and to identify which research-based best practices were used to achieve these impacts. School accountability measures have brought many changes to education. Since the implementation of No Child Left Behind there has been focused attention on student performance on standardized state testing. To ensure that every student met grade level content standards, schools have implemented collaborative planning through professional learning communities to improve instructional practices, regular meetings to track student performance data, and an increased focus on teacher and school leader evaluations to name a few. Despite the positive impacts of all these efforts, there are still gaps in the academic performance levels of identified student reporting groups. To eliminate these achievement gaps, many school leaders are implementing school-based mentoring programs to help meet the socio-emotional needs of their students. A convergent parallel mixed-methods design was used for this study. The researcher gathered quantitative data from a survey developed in a previous study which sought to "unpack how mentoring has its documented, beneficial effects and to refine understanding of best practice" (Tolan, McDaniel, Richardson, Arkin, Augenstern, and Dubois, 2020, p. 2104). The survey was used to identify the practices used by a school-based mentoring program. These survey data were supported by qualitative data collected during semi-structured recorded interviews. The interviews were used to discover the perceptions of the mentors on the impacts of the mentoring program as well as the practices used by the program. The two types of data were used to compare the findings from one another. The findings of this study demonstrated the mentor's fierce belief in the effectiveness of the program. The mentor's shared that they help students develop the ability to advocate for themselves. This finding contrasted with the existing research which discussed mentor's advocating for the mentee. The mentor's felt one of the impacts was helping student to identify and manage the emotions they dealt with in their daily lives. Finally, the mentor's shared that the mentoring program helped students develop prosocial behaviors such as empathy, social problem solving, and cooperation. / Doctor of Education / School leaders are dedicated professionals who work tirelessly to ensure that teachers are prepared to meet the needs of every student. Over the last twenty years there has been renewed attention on school accountability measures from both the state and federal governments. Despite these well-intentioned efforts and the incredible efforts of school leaders there remains significant gaps in the performance of students from the identified reporting groups; such as racial categories, students from low-income households, students with disabilities, and English Language learners. School leaders continue to search for additional resources to help meet the needs of these students. These efforts have led many school leaders to implement school-based mentoring programs. This mixed-methods study sought to identify the perceptions of mentors on the impacts of a school-based mentoring program, as well as which practices were used to achieve these impacts, in a diverse school division in central Virginia. Quantitative data was collected through a survey which sought to determine the practices used by the school-based mentoring program and whether they aligned with the research-based best practice identified in a study by Tolan et al. (2020). Qualitative data was gathered through semi-structured interviews to uncover the perceptions of the mentors on the impacts of the program and to confirm the use of research-based best practices. These two data sets were compared to confirm the findings. The study found that the school-based mentoring program taught students to effectively advocate for themselves. This contrasted with the research-based best practices identified by Tolan et al. (2020) which called for mentors to advocate for students. A second finding was that one of the impacts identified by mentors was that the mentoring program helped students develop empathy, social problem-solving skills, and cooperation. The third finding was that the mentors taught students to identify, name, and then develop the skills necessary to manage the emotions students were struggling with in their lives. Mentors perceived that these skills built upon one another leading students to develop healthy relationships with both peers and school personnel, ultimately leading to increased academic engagement and performance.

The present study evaluated a brief intervention targeting reduction of heavy drinking in college females. Within the context of this brief intervention outcome study Bandura’s (1986) model of self-regulation was tested. Seventy-six heavy drinking college females (minimum of four drinking occasions during past month with Blood Alcohol Concentration estimated at .08% or greater) participated in the intervention. Subjects participated in brief individual assessment sessions and all subjects were provided with drinking reduction information and strategies. Subjects were randomly assigned to one of three goal-setting conditions (no goal; proximal drinking reduction goal, distal drinking reduction goal). Within each of these three goal conditions subjects were randomly assigned to receive feedback on their drinking behavior or to not receive drinking behavior feedback. Subjects were reassessed one month and two months later on measures of drinking behavior and self-regulation variables (commitment to not drinking heavily, efficacy for not drinking heavily and discrepancy/discomfort relative to drinking heavily). Contrary to hypotheses, goal-setting, the provision of feedback, or the combination of goal-setting and feedback was not superior to assessment and information in the reduction of heavy drinking. However, all conditions revealed a significant decrease in drinking across time. Although the self-regulation variables of efficacy and commitment related negatively to future drinking behavior in univariate correlational analyses, the interaction of the self-regulation variables (efficacy, commitment and discrepancy) failed to add to the prediction of future drinking beyond that accounted for by current drinking and the main effects of the self-regulation variables. The theoretically derived hypotheses were not supported by the present study. Procedural and theoretical limitations of self-regulation relative to reduction of heavy drinking in college females, as well as the difficulties involved in changing college student drinking given strong contextual influences are discussed. / Ph. D.

The coping and alcohol literature indicates certain styles of coping are more protective against alcohol use than others. The purpose of the current study was to explore the associations among general coping styles, alcohol-specific coping skills, drinking to cope motives, and alcohol use in an effort to further examine their theoretical relationships. It was hypothesized that: (1) The relationship between problem-focused coping and alcohol use would be mediated by alcohol-specific coping, (2) Drinking to cope would mediate the relationship between avoidant emotion-focused coping and alcohol use, (3) The problem-focused coping facets of planning, active coping, suppression of competing activities, and restraint coping would contribute the most to the prediction of alcohol-specific coping skills, and (4) Intention to regulate drinking would moderate the relationship between problem-focused coping and alcohol-specific coping such that the relationship between the two would be stronger in individuals who have greater intentions of regulating their drinking. College students (N = 327) completed several self-report measures that assessed their alcohol use, general coping styles, use of alcohol-specific coping strategies, and endorsement of drinking to cope motives for alcohol use. Analyses of fully latent variables were conducted using structural equation modeling techniques. Results suggested alcohol-specific coping skills partially mediated the association between problem-focused coping and alcohol use. An unexpected positive direct association between problem-focused coping and alcohol use emerged; post-hoc analyses suggested specific facets of problem-focused coping more clearly explain that finding. The hypothesized relationships between avoidant focused coping and alcohol use were not supported but avoidant coping was significantly associated with drinking to cope, consistent with the literature. Finally, the positive association between problem-focused coping and alcohol-specific coping skills was not moderated by intentions to regulate drinking. Limitations and suggestions for future research are discussed. / Ph. D.

Several studies targeting individuals with panic disorder have demonstrated that Cognitive-behavioral treatment (CST) is the psychological treatment of choice. CST interventions that include exposure to panic symptoms, along with cognitive restructuring. breathing retraining, and relaxation training are more effective than any of these components administered alone. Past studies have demonstrated the efficacy of imparting the above CBT components in the form of bibliotherapy (BT) in the treatment of panic disorder. The present study examined the differential effectiveness of BT and self-regulatory treatments in the treatment of individuals with panic attacks. The present study examined a much purer version of a self-help bibliotherapy intervention by reducing therapist contact much more than prior studies had done. In addition, the present study examined the additive effectiveness of self-regulatory components-self-monitoring (SM) and feedback (FB)--to BT. Sixty-three participants who experienced a DSM-IV full-blown or limited symptom attack in the two weeks prior to beginning the Self-help Project were assigned via stratified randomization to 1 of 4 experimental conditions: 1) BT alone (N = 17); 2) ST plus DML (daily self-monitoring plus feedback; (N = 15); 3) DML (N = 13); or 4) WL (N = 18). The present study utilized a pre - post treatment assessment design with pre-treatment assessment occurring two weeks prior to treatment and post-treatment assessment occurring approximately two weeks after the end of treatment. Treatment was 8 weeks in duration. Participants were sent pre-treatment assessment and treatment materials via mail in order to minimize therapist contact. At post-treatment assessment, participants were assessed either in-person or via mail/phone depending upon their geographic location. It was expected that participants in all treatment conditions would experience less full-blown panic attacks, limited-symptom attacks, avoidance, fear of having a panic attack, panic cognitions. panic symptoms, state anxiety and depressive symptoms and increases in coping strategies and coping self-efficacy than participants in the WL condition. Furthermore, it was expected that participants in the BT plus DML condition would experience more change on the above dependent variables than participants in the BT alone and DML alone conditions from pre- to post-treatment assessment. A 4 X 2 repeated measures MANOVA revealep no Condition by Time interaction or Condition effect. However, a main effect for time across conditions emerged. Univariate tests revealed significant reductions from pre- to post-treatment assessment for full blown panic attacks, avoidance. fear of having a panic attack. panic cognitions, panic symptoms, depressive symptoms, and state anxiety. In addition, an exploratory 4 X 2 repeated measures ANOVA revealed a Condition by Time interaction with partiCipants in the BT and BT plus DML conditions increasing in coping self-efficacy from pre- to post-treatment. Partial correlations revealed that change in coping self-efficacy was related to lower scores on the Panic Attack Symptoms Questionnaire (PASQ) at post-treatment assessment for participants in the BT and BT plus DML conditions. The results of this study are discussed in terms of motivational issues and the effectiveness of such "pure" self-help interventions with individuals experiencing panic attacks. / Ph. D.