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Hyaline cartilage is a highly specialized tissue, which plays an important role in the articulating joints of an individual. It provides the joints with a nearly frictionless, impact resisting surface to protect the ends of the articulating bones. Articular cartilage has a poor self-repair capacity and, therefore, it rarely heals back to normal after an injury. Overweight, injuries, overloading and genetic factors may initiate a degenerative disease of the joint called osteoarthritis. Osteoarthiritis is a major global public health issue. Currently, the most used treatment for large articular cartilage defects is joint replacement surgery. However, possibilities to replace this highly invasive operation with strategies based on tissue engineering are currently investigated. The idea of the tissue engineering is to optimize the use of the cells, biomaterials and culture conditions to regenerate a new functional tissue for the defect site. The goal of this thesis was to manufacture cartilage tissue in cell culture conditions in vitro. Bovine primary chondrocytes isolated from the femoral condyles were used in all the experiments for neocartilage production. The samples were collected for histology, gene expression level quantifications, and analyses of proteoglycan (PG) content and quality. The histological sections were stained for type II collagen and PGs, the quantitative RT-PCR was used to observe the relative expressions of aggrecan, Sox9, procollagen α2(I) and procollagen α1(II) genes. The PGs were quantified using a spectrophotometric method, and agarose gel electrophoresis was used to separate the PGs according to their size. In the two first studies, we optimized the culture conditions of in vitro scaffold-free culture technique to produce the native-type hyaline cartilage of a good quality. We found out that high glucose concentration and hypertonic medium at 20% oxygen tension promoted the best hyaline-like neocartilage tissue production. Glucosamine sulfate supplementation, low oxygen tension, 5 mM glucose concentration and a transient TGF-β3 supplementation were not beneficial for the neocartilage formation in the scaffold-free cell culture system. In the third study, we used these newly defined, optimized culture conditions to produce the neocartilage tissues in the HyStem™ and the HydroMatrix™ scaffold materials and we compared these tissues to the ones grown as scaffold-free control cultures. We noticed that there was no difference between the controls and the scaffolds, and occasionally the scaffold-free controls had produced better quality cartilage than the ones with the scaffolds. Overall, the neocartilage tissues were of good hyaline-like quality in the third study. Their extracellular matrix contents were close to the native cartilage, although the neotissues lacked the zonal organization typical to the normal articular cartilage. The tissues had the right components, but their ultrastructure differed from the native cartilage. In conclusion, we were able to optimize our in vitro neocartilage culture method further, and discovered a good combination of the culture conditions to produce hyaline-like cartilage of good quality. Surprisingly, the scaffold materials were not beneficial for the cartilage formation. / Lasi- eli hyaliinirusto on pitkälle erikoistunutta kudosta, jolla on erittäin tärkeä rooli yksilön nivelten toiminnassa. Kudos suojaa ruston alapuolista luuta muodostamalla lähes kitkattoman ja joustavan liikkumista helpottavan pinnan. Lasiruston oma uusiutumiskyky on hyvin heikko, ja näin ollen kudos vain harvoin paranee alkuperäisen kaltaiseksi vaurion jälkeen. Ylipaino, vammat, liiallinen kuormitus tai geneettiset tekijät voivat käynnistää rustokudoksen rappeutumisen. Tätä tilaa kutsutaan nivelrikoksi. Nivelrikko on valtava kansanterveydellinen ongelma. Keinonivelleikkaus on nykyisellään ainoa hoitokeino pinta-alaltaan laajojen nivelruston vaurioiden hoitoon. Vaihtoehtoja tämän suuren ja invasiivisen kirurgisen operaation korvaamiseksi tutkitaan kuitenkin koko ajan ympäri maailmaa. Kudosteknologian ajatuksena on optimoida solujen, biomateriaalien ja erilaisten kasvatusolosuhteiden käyttö uuden, alkuperäisen kaltaisen toiminnallisen kudoksen luomiseksi vauriokohtaan. Väitöskirjan kaikissa kolmessa osatutkimuksessa uudisrustokudoksia tuotettiin käyttäen naudan polven rustosta eristettyjä primäärisiä rustosoluja. Näytteet kerättiin histologisia analyysejä, geenin ilmentymistutkimuksia ja proteoglykaanisisällön ja -jakauman (PG) analyyseja varten. Histologisista leikkeistä värjättiin tyypin II kollageeni ja PG:t, ja kvantitatiivista RT-PCR -menetelmää käytettiin aggrekaani-, Sox9-, prokollageeni α2(I)- ja prokollageeni α1(II)-geenien suhteellisten ilmentymistasojen määrittämiseen. Proteoglykaanisisältö analysoitiin käyttäen spektrofotometristä menetelmää, ja PG:t eroteltiin kokonsa perusteella agaroosigeelielektroforeesia käyttäen. Kahdessa ensimmäisessä osatutkimuksessa optimoitiin tukirakenteetta kasvattujen uudisrustojen kasvatusolosuhteita natiivin kaltaisen lasiruston tuottamiseksi. Havaitsimme, että korkea glukoosipitoisuus ja hypertoninen elatusaine yhdistettynä 20 % happiosapaineeseen tuotti parhaimman laatuista uudisrustokudosta tutkituista yhdistelmistä. Glukosamiinisulfaatin lisäys, matala happiosapaine, 5 mM glukoosi konsentraatio tai TGF-β3:n lisääminen alkuvaiheessa eivät edesauttaneet uudisrustokudosten muodostumisessa. Kolmannessa osatutkimuksessa otettiin käyttöön uudet, hyväksi havaitut kasvatusolosuhteet yhdistettynä HyStem™ and HydroMatrix™ -tukimateriaaleihin, ja niitä verrattiin tukirakenteettomaan kasvatusmenetelmään. Tutkimuksessa havaittiin, ettei tukirakenteettoman kontrollin tai tukimateriaalien välillä ollut mitään eroa, ja että kontrollikasvatukset tuottivat ajoittain jopa parempaa rustoa kuin tukimateriaalein kasvatetut. Kaiken kaikkiaan kaikki tuotetut uudiskudokset muistuttivat laadullisesti lasiruston kaltaista kudosta. Molekyylisisältö lähenteli natiivia rustoa, vaikkakin uudiskudoksista puuttui normaalille nivelrustolle tyypillinen vyöhykkeinen järjestäytyminen. Kudoksissa oli parhaimmillaan oikea määrä oikeita komponentteja, mutta ne eivät vain olleet järjestäytyneet oikealla tavalla. Onnistuimme optimoimaan uudisrustokudosten kasvatusmenetelmäämme. Löysimme hyvän kasvatusolosuhteiden yhdistelmän, jonka avulla kykenimme tuottamaan lasiruston kaltaista uudisrustokudosta. Hivenen yllättäenkin, tukimateriaalit eivät olleet avuksi tutkimuksessamme uudisrustokudoksia muodostettaessa.

The intervertebral disc (IVD), situated between adjoining vertebrae, consists of the gelatinous nucleus pulposus (NP) in the centre surrounded by the tougher annulus fibrosus (AF). Its main roles are to distribute loads and to act as joints. With aging, degenerative disc disease (DDD) occurs due to an imbalance in anabolic and catabolic events in the IVD, which results in a loss of function. Lower back pain (LBP) affects 84% of people at some point in their lifetime and is strongly associated with DDD. Current LBP treatments have limited long term efficacy and are symptomatic rather than curative. Cell-based therapies are regarded to hold great potential for the treatment of DDD as it has been hypothesised that they could regenerate the damaged tissue and alleviate LBP. A number of natural and synthetic biomaterials have been investigated as NP tissue engineering scaffolds with varying results. In this study, a self assembling peptide hydrogel (SAPH) was investigated for its potential as a cell carrier and/or scaffold for NP tissue engineering. SAPHs display the advantages of natural polymer hydrogels such as biocompatibility and biodegradability whilst combining the advantages of synthetic materials such as controlled structural and mechanical propertiesCharacterisation determined that the SAPH nanofibrous architecture had features that were of similar scale to extracellular matrix (ECM) components of the human NP. The mechanical properties of the SAPH could be optimised to closely match the native tissue. The system could shear thin and self-heal making the system ideally suited to delivery via minimally invasive procedure. The three dimensional (3D) culture of bovine NP cells (bNPCs) in the SAPH demonstrated that the NP phenotype could be restored after de-differentiation during monolayer culture. Gene expression results demonstrated that ‘traditional’ and ‘novel’ NP markers were highly expressed throughout in vitro culture. Cell viability was high, cell population remained stable and bNPCs adopted the characteristic rounded morphology of native NPCs. Finally, type II collagen and aggrecan, the main ECM components of the NP, were deposited with increasing production over culture period. Growth differentiation factor 6 (GDF-6) has been identified as the most promising current growth factor for inducing discogenic differentiation from human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell (h-BMMSCs). After samples were stimulated with GDF-6, gene expression results confirmed that a NP-like phenotype could be induced with high expression of ‘traditional’ and ‘novel’ NP markers. Cell viability was high, cell population remained stable and NP associated ECM components were deposited with cells displaying a rounded morphology. Interestingly, when h-BMMSCs were cultured without GDF-6, it was strongly suggested that spontaneous discogenic differentiation occurred after culture in the SAPHs as ‘traditional’ and ‘novel’ NP markers were highly expressed, morphology was comparable to native NPCs and type II collagen and aggrecan were deposited extracellularly. If these findings were accurate then this is the first study to demonstrate that a NP-like phenotype could be induced from MSCs without use of an exogenous growth factor or a discogenic bioactive motif. Despite exciting and novel results, further work is required to confirm the potential of SAPHs for NP tissue engineering scaffolds.

La biomimètica o biomimetisme són termes que simbolitzen el concepte “aprendre de la naturalesa”, és a dir, aprendre dels seus sistemes, processos i models, a fi d’utilitzar la natura com a font d’inspiració per solucionar problemes de l’home. El biomimetisme és actualment un concepte recurrent en l’àrea d’enginyeria de teixits i d’ell en sorgeixen idees per obtenir plataformes més elegants i sofisticades que puguin imitar millor les interacciones entre les cèl•lules i el seu ambient. Aquesta tesi pretén desenvolupar models, en dues i en tres dimensions, mitjançant la recreació d’un o més factors característics de l’ambient natural de la cèl•lula i que juguen un paper important en el comportament cel•lular. Se sap que tant les propietats químiques com les mecàniques de la matriu extracel•lular influeixen sobre les funcions cel•lulars. És per això que es va dissenyar un nou film polimèric que pogués combinar un hidrogel, amb propietats mecàniques variables, amb un monòmer reactiu capaç d’immobilitzar biomolècules. Degut a la complexitat del polímer dissenyat, va ser necessari recórrer a una tècnica de polimerització superficial molt versàtil com és la deposició química iniciada en fase vapor (més coneguda pel seu acrònim en anglès iCVD). Els polímers varen ser àmpliament caracteritzats i es va corroborar que podien ser modificats amb petites biomolècules com ara pèptids senyalitzadors. Les superfícies resultants són bioactives i permeten l’adhesió de cèl•lules endotelials. Unes altres superfícies biomimètiques, rellevants en l’àmbit de l’enginyeria de teixits d’os, es varen obtenir a partir d’una hidroxiapatita sintetitzada pel mètode de sol-gel submergint-la en diferents medis fisiològics. La dissolució i posterior reprecipitació dels ions proporcionen una capa d’apatita amb una composició similar a la que es troba in vivo. Els experiments evidencien la importància de partir d’un material relativament soluble. És per això que la hidroxiapatita pura no és capaç d’induir la precipitació d’aquesta apatita biomimètica in vitro. Diversos investigadors han relacionat la capacitat de formar apatita amb la bioactivitat del material, entenent bioactivitat com l’habilitat d’aquests materials de promoure la unió amb l’os. Per a l’enginyeria de teixits, però, és necessari un ambient tridimensional per tal de generar un teixit artificial. S’ha desenvolupat un nou model basat en l’ús d’un gel molt tou per tal d’obtenir un teixit dur com el de l’os. Malgrat que aquests dos conceptes poden semblar contradictoris, les cèl•lules adquireixen l’habilitat d’allargar-se ràpidament i crear una densa xarxa cel•lular dins d’aquest ambient poc restrictiu des d’un punt de vista mecànic. La consegüent contracció del sistema acaba formant un constructe més petit i resistent. Aquest és un sistema biomimètic ja que promou una gran interacció cel•lular i també la condensació de les cèl•lules, esdeveniments que tenen lloc també durant el desenvolupament de l’os i el cartílag. El model es va caracteritzar extensament amb cèl•lules ostoprogenitores MC3T3-E1 que es diferenciaren amb inducció química. A més a més, es va demostrar que l’ambient tridimensional podia promoure l’expressió espontània de marcadors osteogènics. Degut a les interessants propietats del sistema, el mateix model es va utilitzar per induir la diferenciació condrogènica de fibroblastos dermals humans. Aquests tipus cel•lular no ha estat gaire explorat en l’àmbit de l’enginyeria de teixits, malgrat que ofereix un gran potencial en teràpia regenerativa. Aquest treball proporciona proves de la capacitat condrogènica d’aquestes cèl•lules en el sistema tridimensional prèviament desenvolupat. / La biomimètica o biomimetismo son términos que simbolizan el concepto “aprender de la naturaleza”, es decir, aprender de sus sistemas, procesos y modelos, y utilizarlos como fuente de inspiración para solucionar problemas del hombre. El biomimetismo es actualmente un concepto recurrente en el área de ingeniería de tejidos y de este surgen ideas para obtener plataformas más elegantes y sofisticadas que puedan mimetizar mejor las interacciones entre las células y su ambiente. La presente tesis se centra en desarrollar modelos, tanto en dos como en tres dimensiones, mediante la recreación de uno o más factores que caracterizan el ambiente natural de la célula y que tienen su rol importante en el comportamiento celular. Se conoce que tanto las propiedades químicas como mecánicas de la matriz extracelular influyen en las funciones celulares. Debido a esto, se diseñó un nuevo film polimérico que pudiera combinar un hidrogel, con propiedades mecánicas variables, con un monómero reactivo, capaz de inmovilizar biomoléculas. Debido a la complejidad del polímero diseñado, fue necesario recurrir a una técnica de polimerización superficial muy versátil como es la deposición química iniciada en fase vapor (más conocida por su acrónimo en inglés iCVD). Los polímeros fueron ampliamente caracterizados y se corroboró que podían ser modificados con pequeñas biomoléculas como péptidos señalizadores. Las superficies resultantes son bioactivas y permiten la adhesión de células endoteliales. Se obtuvieron otro tipo de superficies biomiméticas relevantes en el ámbito de la ingeniería de tejidos de hueso, a partir de una hidroxiapatita sintetizada por el método sol-gel sumergiéndolas en diferentes medios fisiológicos. La disolución y posterior reprecipitación de los iones proporcionan una capa de apatita con una composición similar a la que se encuentra in vivo. Los experimentos evidencian la importancia de partir de un material relativamente soluble. Precisamente debido a esto la hidroxiapatita pura no es capaz de inducir la precipitación de esta apatita biomimética in vitro. Varios investigadores han relacionado la capacidad de formar apatita con la bioactividad del material, entendiendo bioactividad como la habilidad de estos materiales de promover la unión con el hueso. De todos modos, en ingeniería de tejidos, es necesario un ambiente tridimensional para generar un tejido artificial. Se ha desarrollado un nuevo modelo basado en el uso de un gel blando para obtener tejido duro como el del hueso. Aunque estos conceptos pueden parecer contradictorios, las células adquieren la habilidad de estirarse rápidamente y de formar una densa red celular dentro de este gel tan poco restrictivo desde un punto de vista mecánico. La consiguiente contracción del sistema acaba formando un constructo mucho más pequeño y resistente. Este es un sistema biomimético ya que promueve una gran interacción celular y también la condensación de las células, eventos que también ocurren durante el desarrollo de hueso y cartílago. El modelo se caracterizó extensamente con células osteoprogenitoras MC3T3-E1 que se diferenciaron bajo inducción química. Además, se demostró que el microambiente tridimensional podía promover la expresión espontánea de marcadores osteogénicos. Debido a las interesantes propiedades del sistema, el mismo modelo se usó para inducir la diferenciación condrogénica de fibroblastos dermales humanos. Este tipo celular no ha sido demasiado explorado en ingeniería de tejidos, a pesar de que puede tener un gran potencial en terapia regenerativa. Este trabajo proporciona pruebas de la capacidad condrogénica de estas células en el sistema tridimensional previamente desarrollado. / Biomimetics or biomimicry are terms that imply “learning from nature”, from its systems, processes and models, in order to use nature as inspiration to solve human problems. In tissue engineering, biomimetics is nowadays a recurrent term and a source of ideas to obtain more elegant and sophisticated platforms that could better mimic the interactions between cells and their environment. This thesis is focused on developing models both in two- and three-dimensions by recreation of one or more factors of the cell natural environment that are known to play an important role in cell behavior. Since both the chemical and mechanical properties of the extracellular matrix are known to effectively influence cell function, an innovative polymeric thin film was designed combining a hydrogel with tunable mechanical properties and a reactive molecule, capable to immobilize biomolecules. Due to the complexity of the polymers, a versatile technique such as initiated chemical vapor deposition (iCVD) was required for the synthesis. Extensive characterization revealed that nanostructured hydrogels were obtained and that small biomolecules, such as signaling peptides, could be attached on the surface. The final surfaces are bioactive and support endothelial cell attachment. Relevant biomimetic surfaces for bone tissue engineering could also be obtained from a sol-gel synthesized hydroxyapatite after immersion in different physiological media. The dissolution and posterior reprecipitation of the ions rendered a final apatite layer with a composition similar to that found in vivo. The experiments evidenced the importance of starting from a rather soluble material and, thus, pure hydroxyapatite was not able to promote apatite precipitation in vitro. This capacity has been related to the material bioactivity by many researchers in terms of its ability to bond to bone in tissue engineering applications. However, for tissue engineering a three-dimensional environment is required to build tissue-like constructs. A new model was developed based on the use of a very soft gel to obtain hard tissue. Although the concepts might seem to work in opposite directions, cells gain the ability to rapidly elongate and form a dense cellular network within this unrestrictive environment. Subsequent contraction of the whole system rendered a smaller and stronger final tissue-like construct. This system was considered biomimetic as it promotes high cell-cell interaction and cellular condensation, which are events that occur in bone and cartilage development. This system was extensively characterized with osteoprogenitor MC3T3-E1 cells that could undergo full osteogenic differentiation under chemical induction. More interestingly, the three-dimensional microenvironment was also able to promote by itself spontaneous expression of bone-related markers. Due to the interesting properties of this system, the same model was used to induce chondrogenic differentiation of human dermal fibroblasts. This cell type has been poorly explored for tissue engineering applications, but it might have great potential in future therapeutic platforms. This work provides proof of concept of chondrogenic potential of these cells in this three-dimensional system.