Morality has been a central topic of philosophy throughout Western civilization. Integrity is almost synonymous with morality. However, recent widespread corporate scandals challenge our belief that individuals, who at one moment are perceived to live by the standards of integrity, will consistently be moral. Moral self-regulation research (Monin & Miller, 2001; Zhong & Liljenquist, 2006; Zhong, Liljenquist, & Cain, 2009) investigates how people’s perception of their own integrity influences morality and proposes, counter-intuitively, that boosting a sense of integrity would reduce moral behavior (moral licensing) and threatening integrity would increase moral behavior (moral cleansing). This dissertation aims at developing this research by broadening the concept of integrity and by understanding the role that moral identity plays (Aquino & Reed, 2002). I argue that integrity is not only associated with whether one behaves consistently with moral values, but also with whether one behaves consistently with non-moral values, which are also strongly held beliefs but do not involve others’ well-being. Drawing on self-affirmation theory (Steele, 1988), I argue that self-integrity associated with non-moral values (non-moral self-integrity) could influence moral behavior in a similar way as self-integrity associated with moral values (moral self-integrity). I further argue that some individuals are more subject to the influence of self-integrity than others, and moral identity, the relative importance one assigns to morality within one’s self-conception, can identify when concerns with self-integrity will matter in moral domains. Different theories, however, predict two alternative ways that moral identity could moderate licensing and cleansing effects. Evidence from moral identity research suggests that the effects would be weaker among individuals high in moral identity because these individuals are more resilient towards psychological mechanisms that lead to variations in moral behavior. However, self-affirmation theory suggests that the effects would be stronger among individuals high in moral identity because these individuals’ self-integrity are more closely connected to morality and thus they are more likely to manage changes in integrity through moral self-regulation. Four studies were conducted to test the effects of non-moral self-integrity and moral identity on four forms of moral behaviors: volunteering, donating, cheating, and ethical leadership. The accumulative evidence supports the argument that boosted non-moral self-integrity reduced moral behavior and threatened non-moral self-integrity increases moral behavior. In addition, the data supported the prediction derived from self-affirmation theory, namely that licensing and cleansing effects resulting from non-moral self-integrity maintenance were stronger among individuals high in moral identity. This dissertation extends moral self-regulation research by revealing a more thorough connection between integrity and moral behavior and by identifying an important boundary condition of this research. It also has implications for managerial research on leader integrity and using integrity tests in personnel selection.

Morality has been a central topic of philosophy throughout Western civilization. Integrity is almost synonymous with morality. However, recent widespread corporate scandals challenge our belief that individuals, who at one moment are perceived to live by the standards of integrity, will consistently be moral. Moral self-regulation research (Monin & Miller, 2001; Zhong & Liljenquist, 2006; Zhong, Liljenquist, & Cain, 2009) investigates how people’s perception of their own integrity influences morality and proposes, counter-intuitively, that boosting a sense of integrity would reduce moral behavior (moral licensing) and threatening integrity would increase moral behavior (moral cleansing). This dissertation aims at developing this research by broadening the concept of integrity and by understanding the role that moral identity plays (Aquino & Reed, 2002). I argue that integrity is not only associated with whether one behaves consistently with moral values, but also with whether one behaves consistently with non-moral values, which are also strongly held beliefs but do not involve others’ well-being. Drawing on self-affirmation theory (Steele, 1988), I argue that self-integrity associated with non-moral values (non-moral self-integrity) could influence moral behavior in a similar way as self-integrity associated with moral values (moral self-integrity). I further argue that some individuals are more subject to the influence of self-integrity than others, and moral identity, the relative importance one assigns to morality within one’s self-conception, can identify when concerns with self-integrity will matter in moral domains. Different theories, however, predict two alternative ways that moral identity could moderate licensing and cleansing effects. Evidence from moral identity research suggests that the effects would be weaker among individuals high in moral identity because these individuals are more resilient towards psychological mechanisms that lead to variations in moral behavior. However, self-affirmation theory suggests that the effects would be stronger among individuals high in moral identity because these individuals’ self-integrity are more closely connected to morality and thus they are more likely to manage changes in integrity through moral self-regulation. Four studies were conducted to test the effects of non-moral self-integrity and moral identity on four forms of moral behaviors: volunteering, donating, cheating, and ethical leadership. The accumulative evidence supports the argument that boosted non-moral self-integrity reduced moral behavior and threatened non-moral self-integrity increases moral behavior. In addition, the data supported the prediction derived from self-affirmation theory, namely that licensing and cleansing effects resulting from non-moral self-integrity maintenance were stronger among individuals high in moral identity. This dissertation extends moral self-regulation research by revealing a more thorough connection between integrity and moral behavior and by identifying an important boundary condition of this research. It also has implications for managerial research on leader integrity and using integrity tests in personnel selection.

Ce mémoire examine la question de la formation de l'identité en tant que procédure compliquée dans laquelle plusieurs éléments interviennent. L'identité d'une personne se compose à la fois d’une identité propre et d’une autre collective. Dans le cas où l’identité propre est jugée sévèrement par les autres comme étant déviante, cela poussera la personne à, ou bien maintenir une image compatible avec les prototypes sociaux ou bien résister et affirmer son identité personnelle. Mon travail montre que l'exclusion et la répression de certains aspects de l'identité peuvent causer un disfonctionnement psychique difficile à surmonter. Par contre, l'acceptation de soi et l’adoption de tous les éléments qui la constituent conduisent, certes après une longue lutte, au salut de l’âme et du corps. Le premier chapitre propose une approche psychosociale qui vise à expliquer le fonctionnement des groupes et comment l'interaction avec autrui joue un rôle décisif dans la formation de l'identité. Des éléments extérieurs comme par exemple les idéaux sociaux influencent les comportements et les choix des gens. Toutefois, cette influence peut devenir une menace aux spécificités personnelles et aux traits spécifiques. Le deuxième chapitre examine la question des problèmes qu’on risque d’avoir au cas où les traits identitaires franchiraient les normes sociales. Nous partons du problème épineux de la quête de soi dans Giovanni's Room de James Baldwin. L'homosexualité de David était tellement refusée par la société qu’elle a engendrée chez lui des sentiments de honte et de culpabilité. Il devait choisir entre le sacrifice des aspects de soi pour satisfaire les paradigmes sociaux ou bien perdre ce qu’il a de propre. David n'arrive pas à se libérer. Il reste prisonnier des perceptions rigides au sujet de la masculinité et de la sexualité. Mon analyse se focalise essentiellement sur l'examen des différents éléments théoriques qui touchent la question du sexe et de la sexualité. Le résultat est le suivant : plus les opinions dominantes sont rigides et fermes, plus elles deviennent une prison pour l’individu. Par contre, plus elles sont tolérantes et flexibles, plus elles acceptent les diversités de l'identité humaine. Dans le dernier chapitre, j'examine la question de la représentation des relations entre les caractères masculins dans Just Above My Head. L'homosexualité est présentée comme un moyen sacré pour exprimer l'amour. Les caractères révèlent leurs sentiments implicitement à travers les chants spirituel tel que le gospel ou bien explicitement à travers la connexion physique. Dans ce roman, Baldwin montre que c'est seulement grâce à la sincérité et à l'amour que l'individu peut atteindre la libération du soi. / The present thesis examines the construction of identity as a complex process in which many factors interact. A person's identity comprises both the personal self and the collective self. Having an aspect of identity that is judged as deviant or devalued will lead to the individual's confusion between maintaining an image that fits social prototypes or embracing his personal identity. My work demonstrates that the exclusion or repression of certain aspects of identity may lead to disconnection from one's inner self. Yet, it is only through self-acceptance and the embracing of all elements of the self that one manages to resist hostility and gain the liberation of the soul and body. In the first chapter, a social psychological approach is employed in order to explain group functioning and the role that group interaction plays in shaping one's identity. External factors like social ideals influence people's behaviors and choices. Therefore, they represent a threat to personal differences and unique traits. The second chapter examines the implications of having an identity that transgresses social norms by exploring David's quest for the self in James Baldwin's Giovanni's Room. David's insecure identity because of his homosexuality fills him with destructive feelings of shame and guilt. I maintain that sacrificing aspects of the self to satisfy social paradigms may cause the loss of the individual's integrated self. David fails in freeing the self which remains imprisoned in fixed internalized perceptions of manhood and male sexuality. I analyse theoretical views about sex and gender that vary from rigid and traditional opinions to more tolerant and universalizing ones that accept possibilities of diversity in human identity. iv In the last chapter, I will examine Baldwin's depiction of male's bonding in Just Above My Head. The characters confront their emotions. Homosexuality is portrayed as a sacred way of expressing love. The characters' feelings are revealed both in gospel singing and in bodily connection. In this novel, Baldwin demonstrates that it is only through sincerity, disclosure and love that one can attain the liberation of the self.