This study consists of a comparative analysis of three novels by three prominent African women writers which cast light on the ways in which women are oppressed by traditional and cultural norms in three different African countries. These three primary texts also explore the ways in which African women's lives are affected by other issues, such as colonialism and economic factors, and this study discusses this. An analysis of these novels reveals that the inter-connectedness of racial, class and gender issues exacerbates the oppression of many African women, thereby lessening the opportunities for them to attain self-realization. This study goes on to investigate whether there are possibilities of empowerment for the women in the primary texts, and examining the reasons why some women fail to transcend their situations of oppression. The primary novels will be discussed in different chapters, which explore the problems with which various women are beset, and discuss the extent to which the various women in the novels manage to attain empowerment. In conclusion, this study compares and contrasts the ways in which the women in the primary texts are oppressed and highlights the reasons why some women are able to attain empowerment, whilst others are unable to do so. It also shows that many women are beset with comparable forms of oppression, but they may choose to react to these situations differently. Over and above these issues, the study seeks to draw attention to the fact that women need to come together and contribute to the ways in which they can attain various forms of empowerment.

Thesis (MA (Psychology))--Stellenbosch University, 2008. / Recent research in the field of HIV/AIDS prevention suggests that for more effective interventions to be developed, it is necessary to understand, consider, and address the social context in which high risk sexual behaviours occur, and particularly to understand how issues of gender are implicated in the perpetuation of these behaviours. Based on the broad theoretical premise that social discourses play an integral role in the production and maintenance of gender and sexual identity, and in line with research suggesting that more attention needs to be paid to the role that men and masculinity play in HIV transmission through sex, this pilot study employed a social constructionist framework to explore constructions of masculine sexuality, high risk sexual behaviours, HIV/AIDS and the relationships between these, amongst a small sample of 10 young adult Xhosa speaking males that reside in or around Cape Town in the Western Cape, South Africa. The findings of this study indicate that the participants generally construct their gender and sexual identities in ways that are highly consistent with social discourses that construct men as dominant over women. There was also strong evidence that, for the participants, their sexual identity represented a primary source of their identity as men. This sexual identity appeared in itself to be constructed primarily along patriarchal lines, and maintained by pervasive reference to what is normative for men within their social contexts, thereby setting up a self perpetuating loop. The data revealed a number of dimensions to this sexual identity, such as the role that sexual success and prowess plays in maintaining and enhancing a sense of self and public esteem, that provided participants with logical motivations for engaging in high risk sexual behaviours (although participants did not necessarily construct them as such) such as having multiple sexual partners, casual sex, non-use of condoms and, importantly, sexual coercion: 70% of the participants indicated that they either do not use condoms consistently or don’t use them at all while 80% reported having sexually coerced at least one partner. There is strong evidence to support the suggestion that the content of the participants’ masculine sexual identity is inextricably linked both to the social gender discourses present in the social context, and their sexual behaviour. There was also evidence to suggest that this link represents a psychological motivation for behaviour that is often more powerful than the participants’ cognitive awareness of the risk of contracting HIV and their own personal morality put together.

Thesis (MTh)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The current situation around widowhood sexuality is unspeakably painful. It has been established through literature review in this study that widows are the most neglected group in many societies. In Zimbabwe the unprecedented rise in the number of widows has been caused by the proliferation socio-economic, political climate coupled with the devastating effects of HIV and AIDS pandemic. HIV and AIDS pandemic has caused unimaginable suffering among all segments of society in Zimbabwe but impacts more on women and girls. HIV has increased the number of young widows in the country. This is the group which is still sexual active and they are in the church in quest to find meaning in God. The study also explored how the patriarchal society and religious norms control and manipulate women‟s sexuality. The church and the community views sex and sexuality issues as private matters. Hence, the dilemmas of widowhood sexuality are created by widows‟ failure to publicly and or share their challenges with church leadership. However, it was made clear during the study that the quest for sexual meaning becomes a challenge due to the complexities caused by HIV and AIDS pandemic. The challenge shown in this study was how to do theology and be a church where we accept that all theological formulations and institutional designs are influenced by their context. Therefore, could it be moral for the church to teach that widows embrace other sexual alternatives that are less risk to contract or transmit HIV; such as masturbation, use of sex toys and vibrators? Can these help widows reduce their sexual tension and evoke pleasure? If such or more suitable means are availed by the church how should widows be enriched to live meaningful in their faith in God? For the church to teach widows to say “no” to sexual intimacy outside marriage sound irresponsible and unrealistic to prevailing statistics of widows and their ages in church. However, the dilemma is for them to engage in sexual intimacy without creating other existential issues leading them to live in guilt- feelings and in the process lose their meaning in their God. Is the church willing to look closely to widowhood sexuality in this era of HIV and AIDS pandemic? The HIV and AIDS pandemic challenges the church to formulate policies and reframe pastoral theology in a way that is relevant to allow widows discover a God who can be compassionate and trusted to give meaning in suffering. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die huidige situasie in verband met weduweeskap en seksualiteit is onbeskryflik pynlik. Dit het duidelik geword uit die literatuuroorsig in hierdie studie dat weduwees die mees afgeskeepte groep in baie gemeenskappe is. In Zimbabwe is die ongehoorde styging in die aantal weduwees te wyte aan die groei in die slegte sosio-ekonomiese en politiese klimaat tesame met die verwoestende gevolge van die MIV en VIGS pandemie. Die MIV en VIGS pandemie het ondenkbare lyding veroorsaak in alle areas van die gemeenskap in Zimbabwe, maar dit het 'n groter invloed op vroue en jong meisies. MIV het veroorsaak dat die getal jong weduwees in hierdie land gestyg het. Dit is ook die groep wat steeds seksueel aktief is en hulle kom na die kerk in 'n soeke om betekenis te vind in God. Hierdie studie ondersoek ook hoe die patriargale gemeenskap en sy godsdienstige norme vroue se seksualiteitbeheer en manipuleer. Die kerk en die gemeenskap beskou seks en seksualiteit as 'n private aangeleentheid. Die gevolg is dat die dilemma van weduweeskap en seksualiteit geskep word deur die weduwee se versuim om haar uitdagings in die openbaar of by die kerkleiers bekend te maak. Dit het egter gedurende hierdie studie duidelik geraak dat die soeke na seksuele betekenis 'n groot uitdaging is as gevolg van die kompleksiteite wat veroorsaak word deur die MIV en VIGS pandemie. Die uitdaging wat met hierdie studie beklemtoon word, is hoe om teologie toe te pas en 'n kerk te wees wat aanvaar dat alle teologiese formulering en institusionele ontwerpe ook deur hul konteks beïnvloed word. Is dit derhalwe 'n morele probleem vir die kerk om vir weduwees aan te beveel om seksuele alternatiewe te ondersoek wat minder risiko's inhou vir die opdoen of oordra van MIV; soos masturbasie, die gebruik van seksspeelgoed en vibrators? Kan hierdie alternatiewe metodes weduwees help om hul seksuele spanning te verminder en seksuele genot te ervaar? Indien hierdie, of ander geskikte metodes, deur die kerk benut word, hoe kan weduwees verryk word deur betekenisvol tot hul geloof in God te leef? Vir die kerk om weduwees te leer om “nee” te sê vir seksuele intimiteit buite die huwelik klink onverantwoordelik en onrealisties as die heersende getal weduwees in die kerk en hul ouderdomme in ag geneem word. Die dilemma is egter vir hulle om seksuele intimiteit te beleef sonder om ander eksistensiële vraagstukke te skep, wat hulle dwing om saam te leef met skuldgevoelens en in die proses betekenis in hul God verloor. Is die kerk bereid om noukeurig te kyk na weduweeskap en seksualiteit in hierdie era van die MIV en VIGS pandemie? Die MIV en VIGS pandemie daag die kerk uit om beleide te formuleer en pastorale teologie te herdefinieer op 'n manier wat relevant is tot die ontdekking van 'n God wat medelydend en betroubaar is en wat betekenis kan gee aan lyding.

The most widespread intervention in South Africa into the sexualities of young people is school based sexuality education. However there is a dearth of research in this area, and studies that have been conducted highlight major weaknesses with implementation. Research from Western countries indicates that the messages conveyed in sexuality education are resisted if they conflict with the desired sexual subjectivities of young people. This indicates a need for further research into desired youth sexualities, and school based sexuality education. While South African studies of young people‘s talk about sexualities have been conducted, there is a paucity of literature in this area from a discursive perspective. This study is situated within a feminist post-structuralist paradigm, utilising a performative-performance analytical approach which synthesises Butlerian theory with a narrative-discursive methodology. This approach enables an analysis of both the macro-discursive power webs within which sexualities are situated, and the micro-discursive activity through which sexual subject positions are constructed. I used this approach to analyse the talk of groups of students from a Further Education and Training College about the sexualities of High School learners and their own past sexuality education. Findings showed that that the most dominant discursive resources which were utilised to construct sexualities were societal sexual norms discourses. These foundational discourses constructed gendered sexualities of compulsory hyper-heterosex for men, and compulsory compliant girlfriendhood for women. Such gendered sexualities reinforced patriarchal and abusive gendered and sexual practices. Ways in which participants troubled the dominant gendered sexualities through the performance of alternative sexual positions were analysed, as these 'troubling' performances indicate mutable aspects of the normative gendered field. Participants drew on a discourse of disconnect when talking about their school sexuality education, and their parents‘ (lack of) communication with them about sex. This suggests that adultist attempts to construct a 'responsible' sexual subject position for young people are resisted when such a position is constructed in a non-relational manner. Collusion between the constructed gendered sexualities and the discourse of disconnect results in the un-performability of a 'responsible' sexual subject position. These findings were used to provide suggestions for enhancing school based sexuality interventions.

M.A. (Sociology) / The increasing incidence of phenomena like cohabitation, extra-marital births and voluntary single parenthood in Western society, indicates a shift in the social definition of sexuality. This is particularly apparent when the current situation is compared to traditional Western societies where sexuality was, for instance, limited to the monogamous, heterosexual marriage and to reproduction within marriage. This change in the meaning of sexuality can be attributed to a change in attitudes towards the acceptability of premarital sexual and sexually-related behaviour. This attitude is referred to as premarital sexual permissiveness. This study investigates premarital sexual permissiveness among female university students as related to: (i) certain social factors namely mother-daughter communication about sexuality, religiosity, liberalism-conservatism and commitment to marital life and (ii) certain biographic factors namely age, area of study, academic study year, environment where the student grew up, home language, religious denomination, father's occupation, father's highest educational qualifications, mother's occupation, mother's highest educational qualification and the student's dating phase. In this study quantitative research was conducted in which a questionnaire was completed by a representative sample of 253 female students. The questionnaire consisted of questions on the biographical background of students as well as questions measuring premarital sexual permissiveness, mother-daughter communication about sexuality, religiosity, liberalism-conservatism and commitment to marital life. To measure the above-mentioned social factors, six scales were developed by means of factor analysis and item analysis. The scales are Premarital sexual permissiveness-with-affection, Premarital sexual permissiveness-without-affection, Mother-daughter communication about sexuality, Religiosity, Politicalliberalism-eonservatism and Commitment to marital life. Premarital sexual permissiveness-with-affection and Premarital sexual permissiveness-without-affection were analysed in terms of the biographic background of the student and the four other scales, making use of one-way analysis of variance and Scheffe's paired comparisons, Hotelling T2 and t-tests and Pearsons correlations. It was found that fourth year/honours students are more in favour of Premarital sexual permissiveness-with-affection than second- or third year students. Students that are in love with somebody or are engaged, are also more in favour of Premarital sexual permissiveness-with-affection than unattached students. English-speaking students are more in favour of Premarital sexual permissiveness-with-affection and Premarital sexual permissiveness-without-affection than Afrikaans-speaking students. It was also found that students from the Faculty of Science are more in favour of Premarital sexual permissiveness-without-affection than students from the Faculty of Arts. Regarding the interrelation between the different scales, it was found that the more students are in favour of Premarital sexual permissiveness-with-affection, the more they are in favour of Premarital sexual permissiveness-without-affection. Religiosity proved to be of significance in the sense that the more religious the students are, the less they are in favour of Premarital sexual permissiveness-with-affection and Premarital sexual permissiveness-without-affection. It was also found that the more often mother and daugther communicated about sexuality. the less the student would be in favour of Premarital sexual permissiveness-without-affection. With regard to Commitment to marital life as a dependant variable, it was found that the more students are in favour of Premarital sexual permissiveness-with-affection and Premarital sexual permissiveness-without-affection, the less they are committed to marital life. These findings pave the way for more research on premarital sexual permissiveness in South Africa, for example research on premarital sexual permissiveness among male students, among other races and among high school scholars.

MGS / Institute for Gender and Youth Studies

Text in Afrikaans / Hierdie is 'n verkennende studie wat die Tsonga se persepsies omtrent seksualiteit ondersoek. Daar is gekonsentreer op die etiese en sosio-kulturele aspekte van die seksualiteit ten einde riglyne aan die Christelike kerk te verskaf. Die kwalitatiewe navorsingsmetode is gebruik. In hoofstukke twee en drie word breedvoerig verlag gedoen oor die Tsonga se seksuele persepsies en gebruike. Eerstens word gekyk na die nie-Christelike Tsonga en dan na die Christelike Tsonga. Die nie-Christelike Tsonga se seksualiteit is deurspek van rnitiese gebruike en gelowe. Die Christelike Tsonga het minder van die rnitiese maar toon weinig konforrnasie tot die tradisionele Christelike waardes. Uit die tradisionele Afrikareligie is 'n bepaalde etiek oorgeerf. Hierdie etiese beginsels verskil aansienlik van die Christelike etiek. Die Christelike etiek is 'n normatiewe etiek waar die motief vir 'n bepaalde handeling net so belangrik is as die handeling self. Die oorgeerfde Afrika-etiek stel minder belang in die intensies van die persoon wat die handeling uitvoer. Wat saak maak is die gevolge van 'n handeling. Die vraag word gevra waarom die Christelike Tsonga nie nader aan die aanvaarde Christelike norme beweeg het nie. Daar word bevind dat oorgelewerde sosiale tradisies, gebruike en waardes groter invloed op die seksualiteit uitoefen as godsdiens. Die is veral die proses van vervreemding, wat die Tsongakultuur tans ondergaan, wat lei tot 'n toestand van kontakarmoede en 'n gebrek aan singewing. Kan die kerk enige bydrae lewer tot die seksualiteit van die Tsonga? Daar is bevind dat die Christelike sending 'n fasiliterende bydrae daartoe kan lewer dat die Tsonga-gelowige, 'n lokale teologie van die seksualiteit tot stand kan bring. Dit is belangrik dat die Tsongagemeenskap self die teoloog moet wees. Op hierdie manier kan die Christelike godsdiens wel 'n verrykende bydrae lewer tot die seksualiteit by die Tsonga. / This is a investigative study that researches the Tsonga perception of sexuality. Emphasis has been placed on the ethical and socio­ cultural aspects of sexuality in order to provide guidelines to the Christian church. The qualitative method of research was used. In chapters two and three a detailed account of the Tsonga's sexual perceptions and practices is given. Firstly the non-Christian Tsonga was studied and then the Christian Tsonga. The non-Christian Tsonga's sexuality is interspersed with mythical practices and beliefs. The Christian Tsonga have less of the mythical but show little conformation to the traditional Christian values. From the traditional African religions a specific ethic was inherited. These ethical principles differ substantially from the Christian ethics. The Christian ethic is a normative ethic where the motive for an action is as important as the action itself. The inherited African ethic is less interested in the intentions of the person doing the action. The consequence of the action is what matters. The question is asked why the Christian Tsonga did not move closer to the accepted Christian norms. It was found that the inherited social traditions, uses and values exert more influence on the sexuality than the religion. It is above all the process of alienation that the Tsonga culture is presently enduring, that leads to a situation of poor contact and a lack of purpose. Can the church deliver any contribution towards the sexuality of the Tsonga? It was found that the Christian mission could make a facilitating contribution towards the Tsonga believers, enabling them to bring about a local theology of sexuality. It is important that the Tsonga community should be its own theologian. In this manner the Christian religion can make an enriching contribution towards the sexuality of the Tsonga. / Christian Spirituality, Church History and Missiology / Th. D. (Sendingwetenskap)

Thesis (MPhil)--Stellenbosch University, 2015. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The objective of this study was to measure the level of HIV and Aids knowledge, attitudes and safer sex practices among student men who have sex with men (MSM) at a higher education institution in the Western Cape. The study served to recommend guidelines for effective and enhanced targeted intervention response for MSM student community. A total of 36 MSM students aged between 19 and 36 (of which most were South African, black and Xhosa speaking) were recruited to take part in the study. Selection was done via snowball sampling. Respondents completed questionnaires upon consenting to participate in the study. The study found moderately high levels of basic HIV knowledge among the sampled MSM population. There were, however, lower levels of knowledge reported regarding the associated risk and effective prevention strategies of anal sex when compared to similar information about vaginal sex and oral sex. Findings also show that participants had very positive attitudes towards HIV testing, condom use and a non-discriminating environment. Respondents lacked confidence in both management and student leadership with regards to their responsibility in mitigating homophobia/discrimination against MSM student population. Furthermore, a high number of respondents reported having sex with men and women as well as multiple sexual partnerships. Self-reported alcohol and drug use were found to be very low, with the majority of participants indicating non-use. Participants stated little challenges accessing health care services. However, respondents felt MSM specific information about health care related rights and needs were lacking. Recommendations from this study include current HIV and Aids policy reform, mainstreaming MSM-friendly health care services, introducing combination HIV prevention programmes such as Mpowerment and addressing the human rights needs of MSM. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die doel van hierdie studie was om die vlakke van MIV en Vigs kennis, houdings en veilige seksuele praktyke onder manlike studente wat seks het met mans (MSM) by 'n hoër onderwys instansie in die Wes-Kaap te meet. Die studie het gepoog om riglyne daar te stel vir die bewerkstelling van effektiewe en verbeterde geteikende intervensies vir die MSM studente gemeenskap. Daar was 36 MSM studente tussen die ouderdomme van 19 en 36 (meestal Suid-Afrikaans, swart en Xhosa-sprekend) gewerf vir die studie. Seleksie is gedoen deur middel van die sneeubal steekproef-metode. Deelnemers het 'n vraelys voltooi nadat hulle ingewillig het om deel te neem aan die studie. Deelnemers het matig tot hoë vlakke van basiese MIV en Vigs kennis getoon. Daar was egter laer vlakke van kennis oor gepaardgaande risiko’s en effektiewe voorkoming strategieë ten opsigte van anale seks in vergelyking met dieselfde informasie oor vaginale en orale seks. Die studie het verder bevind dat deelnemers baie positiewe houdings gehad het teenoor MIV-toetsing, die gebruik van kondome en 'n nie-diskriminerende omgewing. Verder het hulle min vertroue getoon in beide die bestuur en studente leierskap se vermoë om sake wat verband hou met homofobie en/of diskriminasie teen die MSM studente bevolking, effektief te hanteer. Daar is gevind dat baie respondente seks het met mans en vroue en ook verskeie seksuele maats het. Self-gerapporteerde alkohol- en dwelmgebruik was relatief laag onder respondente met die meerderheid wat aangedui het hulle glad nie alkohol of dwelms gebruik nie. Deelnemers het ook rapporteer dat gesondheidsdienste vir hulle maklik toeganklik is. Respondente het ook gevoel dat MSM spesifieke informasie oor gesondheidsverwante regte en behoeftes tans ontbreek. Aanbevelings wat voortspruit uit hierdie studie sluit in die hersien van die huidige MIV en Vigs beleid, die skepping van MSM-vriendelike dienste, die implementering van MIV-voorkomingsprogramme soos Mpowerment en die bevordering van menseregte wat verband hou met MSM.

Text in Afrikaans / Hierdie is 'n verkennende studie wat die Tsonga se persepsies omtrent seksualiteit ondersoek. Daar is gekonsentreer op die etiese en sosio-kulturele aspekte van die seksualiteit ten einde riglyne aan die Christelike kerk te verskaf. Die kwalitatiewe navorsingsmetode is gebruik. In hoofstukke twee en drie word breedvoerig verlag gedoen oor die Tsonga se seksuele persepsies en gebruike. Eerstens word gekyk na die nie-Christelike Tsonga en dan na die Christelike Tsonga. Die nie-Christelike Tsonga se seksualiteit is deurspek van rnitiese gebruike en gelowe. Die Christelike Tsonga het minder van die rnitiese maar toon weinig konforrnasie tot die tradisionele Christelike waardes. Uit die tradisionele Afrikareligie is 'n bepaalde etiek oorgeerf. Hierdie etiese beginsels verskil aansienlik van die Christelike etiek. Die Christelike etiek is 'n normatiewe etiek waar die motief vir 'n bepaalde handeling net so belangrik is as die handeling self. Die oorgeerfde Afrika-etiek stel minder belang in die intensies van die persoon wat die handeling uitvoer. Wat saak maak is die gevolge van 'n handeling. Die vraag word gevra waarom die Christelike Tsonga nie nader aan die aanvaarde Christelike norme beweeg het nie. Daar word bevind dat oorgelewerde sosiale tradisies, gebruike en waardes groter invloed op die seksualiteit uitoefen as godsdiens. Die is veral die proses van vervreemding, wat die Tsongakultuur tans ondergaan, wat lei tot 'n toestand van kontakarmoede en 'n gebrek aan singewing. Kan die kerk enige bydrae lewer tot die seksualiteit van die Tsonga? Daar is bevind dat die Christelike sending 'n fasiliterende bydrae daartoe kan lewer dat die Tsonga-gelowige, 'n lokale teologie van die seksualiteit tot stand kan bring. Dit is belangrik dat die Tsongagemeenskap self die teoloog moet wees. Op hierdie manier kan die Christelike godsdiens wel 'n verrykende bydrae lewer tot die seksualiteit by die Tsonga. / This is a investigative study that researches the Tsonga perception of sexuality. Emphasis has been placed on the ethical and socio­ cultural aspects of sexuality in order to provide guidelines to the Christian church. The qualitative method of research was used. In chapters two and three a detailed account of the Tsonga's sexual perceptions and practices is given. Firstly the non-Christian Tsonga was studied and then the Christian Tsonga. The non-Christian Tsonga's sexuality is interspersed with mythical practices and beliefs. The Christian Tsonga have less of the mythical but show little conformation to the traditional Christian values. From the traditional African religions a specific ethic was inherited. These ethical principles differ substantially from the Christian ethics. The Christian ethic is a normative ethic where the motive for an action is as important as the action itself. The inherited African ethic is less interested in the intentions of the person doing the action. The consequence of the action is what matters. The question is asked why the Christian Tsonga did not move closer to the accepted Christian norms. It was found that the inherited social traditions, uses and values exert more influence on the sexuality than the religion. It is above all the process of alienation that the Tsonga culture is presently enduring, that leads to a situation of poor contact and a lack of purpose. Can the church deliver any contribution towards the sexuality of the Tsonga? It was found that the Christian mission could make a facilitating contribution towards the Tsonga believers, enabling them to bring about a local theology of sexuality. It is important that the Tsonga community should be its own theologian. In this manner the Christian religion can make an enriching contribution towards the sexuality of the Tsonga. / Christian Spirituality, Church History and Missiology / Th. D. (Sendingwetenskap)

MGS / Institute for Youth and Gender Studies