Faculty of Criminology, Justice and Policy Studies

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The aim of the study is to explore the trafficking situation in Kosovo, where the focus is on the shelter workers but also other professional’s experiences of working with trafficked women. The study is particularly focusing on the process of entering and leaving trafficking and how professionals support the women in the shelters. The study is carried out through an ethnographic approach, based on interviews inspired by semi-structured and open interviews with shelter workers coming from three different shelters in Kosovo, completed with shelter observations. That also includes aspects of psychologist and victims’ advocates working with trafficking in Kosovo. The findings presented four overlooking themes: Trafficking as created from the outside, Entering and leaving trafficking, In the shelter: The Household concept and lastly Re-integration: “re-trafficked”. The themes proclaimed a retrospective process of entering and leaving trafficking in Kosovo. In conclusion the process showed upon the difficulties the professionals experienced while supporting the women into the society that was related to the collectivistic way of living in Kosovo. Whereas the professionals support the women inspired by the individualistic concept, as they strive to support the women to be autonomous agents of their own lives. When the women leave the shelters and enter the community life, the professionals experience that the women are often stigmatized. This also showed upon the challenge the professional’s work of supporting women’s re-integration, as they experience that the women often end up in the streets.

O presente estudo se propôs a discutir e tensionar o conceito de exploração sexual a partir do referencial teórico dos Estudos de Gênero, dos Estudos da Sexualidade e dos Estudos Culturais. A pesquisa buscou problematizar de que forma as redes de atendimento que deveriam se constituir como redes de proteção à infância e adolescência compreendem esse fenômeno e de que modo crianças e adolescentes do gênero feminino em situação de exploração sexual vivenciam tal realidade. Para tanto, foram produzidos materiais de pesquisa a partir de três fontes. O material 1 partiu de uma pesquisa documental realizada durante um período de 3 meses em uma delegacia especializada em violência contra crianças e adolescentes, sendo selecionados três inquéritos envolvendo casos de exploração sexual. O material 2 consistiu de entrevistas realizadas com seis participantes profissionais atuantes tanto nas organizações de enfrentamento como nos serviços de atendimento, utilizando-se um roteiro semiestruturado. O material 3 partiu do acompanhamento a três meninas/jovens, com idades entre 11 e 14 anos, identificadas em situação de exploração sexual e atendidas nos serviços de acolhimento na modalidade casa-lar e abrigo. Foram realizados encontros com grupos focais e entrevistas individuais seguindo-se um roteiro semiestruturado. Os resultados apontaram que, nos processos de erotização precoce, analisados aqui como processos de pedofilização e que dão sustentação à cultura do estupro, a/o violência/abuso sexual se fez presente na vida das meninas/jovens interlocutoras desta pesquisa. O forte investimento erótico no corpo jovem feminino, em suas pedagogias de gênero e de sexualidade vivenciadas nas relações afetivas familiares, perpassou desde as figuras masculinas mais próximas, como padrasto, padrinho, tio, avô e irmão, além das próprias mães, que, de alguma forma, reconheciam (ou atribuíam) esse poder em suas filhas pelo simples fato de serem jovens. Por parte dos homens, esse corpo jovem exerce um fascínio, despertado a partir de uma erotização das desigualdades, seja pela questão geracional ou ainda pelos atravessamentos de classe social, reafirmando, assim, uma masculinidade heteronormativa e perpetrando uma sexualidade vista como “desenfreada” e facilmente cedida aos “apelos” femininos juvenis. Tal perspectiva é legitimada pela figura materna, que, nas negociações de suas filhas com esses homens, colocam os corpos jovens de suas meninas como disponíveis, para também terem acesso ao poder econômico por eles exercido. Diante de toda a estimulação sexual impressa nessas meninas/jovens, a exploração sexual acaba por ser uma das possibilidades de expressão e exercício da sexualidade, sendo uma estratégia utilizada por elas para serem reconhecidas e apreciadas enquanto mulheres. O trabalho das instituições de proteção torna-se complexo e dificultoso, principalmente por chegarem até as meninas tardiamente, quando elas já encontraram suas formas próprias de lidar com a violência sexual sofrida. Ao se darem conta dessa dificuldade, as meninas constroem estratégias para burlar as regras cotidianas desse controle institucional, emergindo como insubordinas, chegando mesmo a fugir dos abrigos ou casas-lares. Diante do quadro de insubordinação, elas passam a ser alvo de controle e normatização por parte do estado por meio da administração de um forte tratamento medicamentoso. Muito mais do que combater ou erradicar a exploração sexual – entendendo aqui que essa dimensão não pode ser abandonada – para que essa “proteção” possa cumprir os seus propósitos, as questões envolvidas nesses processos de erotização precoce necessitam ser reconhecidas, assim como os seus efeitos na vida dessas meninas/jovens. / The present study proposed to discuss and stress the concept of sexual exploitation as a theme based on the theoretical framework of Gender Studies, Studies of Sexuality, and Cultural Studies. The research aimed to discuss how the Child and Teenager Protection Network understands this phenomenon and how female children and adolescents that experience sexual exploitation live this reality. To this end, research material from three different sources was produced. Material 1 came from a documentary research conducted over a period of three months in a Police Station specialized in violence against children and adolescents. Three surveys that involved cases of sexual exploitation have been selected. Material 2 consisted of interviews conducted with six professional participants working both in coping and in customers service organizations following a semi-structured guide. Material 3 started from monitoring the three girls/young people aged between 11 and 14 identified in a situation of sexual exploitation assisted in childcare services in private-home and shelter. Meetings were held with focus groups and individual interviews following a semi-structured guide. The results indicated that, in cases of early eroticism analyzed here as processes of pedophilização lending support to the rape culture, violence/sexual abuse was present in the life of the surveyed girls/young women. The strong erotic investment in the young female body, in its pedagogies of gender and sexuality experienced in the family, affective relations ranged from the closest male figures such as stepfather, godfather, uncle, grandfather and brother besides the mothers themselves who somehow recognized (or attributed to) that power in their daughters simply because they were young. On the part of men, this young body exerts a fascination, awakened from an erotization of the inequalities, either by the generational question or by the crossings of social class, thus reaffirming a heteronormative masculinity and perpetrating a sexuality seen as “wild” and easily transferred to the young feminine “appeals”. Such a perspective is legitimized by the mother figure who in the negotiation of their daughters with these men, make their young bodies available, to have access, also, to the economic power they exercise. And in the face of all sexual stimulation printed in these girls/young women, sexual exploitation ends up being one of the possibilities of expression and exercise of sexuality. It is also a strategy used by girls to be recognized and appreciated as women. The work of the protection institutions becomes complex and difficult mainly because they arrive too late to young people when they have already found their own ways of dealing with their suffered sexual violence. And when they realize this difficulty, the girls construct strategies to circumvent the daily rules of this institutional control, emerging as insubordinate fleeing from the private-homes and shelters. In face of the insubordination they become the target of control and standardization on the part of the state through the administration of a strong drug treatment. Much more than combat or eradicate sexual exploitation - understand here that this dimension cannot be abandoned – so that this “protection” can fulfill its purposes, the issues involved in these processes of early erotization need to be recognized as well as its effects on the lives of these girls/young people.

The accurate identification of children from facial photographs could provide a great attribute in the fight against child sexual exploitation, and may also aid in the detection of missing juveniles where comparative material is available. The European Commission is actively pursuing a global alliance for the identification of the victims of child sexual abuse; a task which is considered to be of the utmost importance. Images of child sexual abuse are shared, copied, and distributed online and their origin can be difficult to trace. Current investigations attempting to identify the children within such images appear to focus on the determination of places or geographical regions depicted in these images, from which victims can subsequently be tracked down and identified. Cutting edge technology is also used to detect duplicate images in order to decrease the workload of human operators and dedicate more time to the identification of new victims. Present investigations do not appear to focus on facial information for victim identification. Methods of facial identification already exist for adult individuals, consisting of both automated facial recognition algorithms and manual facial comparison techniques carried out by human operators. Human operator image comparison is presently the only method considered accurate enough to verify a face identity. It is only recently that researchers involved in automated facial recognition have begun to concern themselves with identification spanning childhood. Methods focus on age simulation to match query images with the age of the target database, rather than discrimination of individual faces over age progression. As far as can be determined, this is the first attempt to assess the manual comparison of juvenile faces. This study aimed to create a database of children’s faces from which identification accuracy could be tested using both automated facial recognition and manual facial comparison methods, which already exist for the identification of adults. A state-of-the-art facial recognition algorithm was employed and manual facial comparison was based on current recommendations by the Facial Identification Scientific Working Group (FISWG). It was not known if methods based on adult faces could be successfully extrapolated to juvenile faces, particularly as facial identification is highly susceptible to errors when there is an age difference between images of an individual. In children, the face changes much more rapidly than adults over ageing, due to the rapid growth and development of the juvenile face. The results of this study are in agreement with comparisons of automated and human performance in the identification of adult faces. Overall the automated facial recognition algorithm superseded human ability for identification of juvenile faces, however human performance was higher for the most difficult face pairs. The average accuracy for human image comparison was 61%. There was no significant difference in juvenile identification between individuals with prior experience of adult facial comparison and those with no prior experience. For automated facial recognition a correct identification rate of 71% was achieved at a false acceptance rate of 9%. Despite using methods created for adult facial identification, the results of this study are promising, particularly as they are based on a set of images acquired under uncontrolled conditions, which is known to increase error rates. With further augmentation of the database and investigation into child-specific identification techniques, the ability to accurately identify children from facial images is certainly a future possibility.

Canada’s 1991 ratification of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) means that policies to eliminate commercial sexual exploitation should be implemented equally for all children, without discrimination. However, Aboriginal peoples are disproportionately represented among Canada’s population of commercially sexually exploited children and youth. They are also more likely to experience the primary risk factors for commercial sexual exploitation – poverty, exposure to violence, and involvement in the child welfare system. I conducted a policy analysis examining the implementation in Canada of the CRC Articles related to the primary predictors of commercial sexual exploitation of children, to determine whether they are being implemented differentially for Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal children. The findings revealed that although Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal children obtained identical scores on the quantitative measures, the implementation of the relevant rights standards differed substantially across the two populations, as evident in differential funding and service provision for the two groups.

Background and Objectives: The rise in cases of online child sexual exploitation has become a global problem. Understanding both the psychological profiles of this offender group and the strategies employed during the process of exploitation, is crucial for aiding prevention and detection of these crimes as well as informing treatment and educational programmes. Thus, there were two main aims of the thesis. Firstly, a systematic review was conducted to investigate the psychological characteristics of online child sexual offenders (OCSO). Secondly, research was carried out to examine the utility of a pre-existing process model of grooming in the online sexual exploitation of children (O'Connell, 2003). Methodology: A systematic search of papers published between 2006 and 2016 was carried out. Those eligible for inclusion measured psychological characteristics using psychometric tools. A quality checklist was designed to appraise the methodological robustness of each paper. For the research study, qualitative content analysis of 63 online chat logs between offenders and children was undertaken. Logs were initially coded for correspondence to stages and strategies outlined by O'Connell, and additional codes assigned to themed text that did not fit this model. Results: The systematic review revealed fourteen papers for inclusion, and collective strengths and weaknesses were identified. Compared to contact offenders, few differences in psychological characteristics were identified; however tentative evidence suggests that online offenders experience greater interpersonal deficits whilst contact offenders present with more antisocial difficulties. Qualitative content analysis of chat logs revealed partial support for O'Connell's model. Several offender strategies proposed to take place during the sexual stage were evidenced. However, no logs showed evidence of all six stages. Additional offender strategies identified included flattery and minimising their behaviour. Various child strategies were identified, with children refusing all sexual advances in the majority of logs (n=34). Conclusions: Generic sexual offender treatment packages may not best meet the needs of OCSO. An alternative is discussed. Future research should focus on the development of psychometric tools for use with OCSO. Offenders appear heterogeneous in their approach to online sexual exploitation of children. Effective educational programmes must emphasise the speed at which many offenders will introduce sexual content, for whom traditional notions of grooming do not apply.

O presente estudo se propôs a discutir e tensionar o conceito de exploração sexual a partir do referencial teórico dos Estudos de Gênero, dos Estudos da Sexualidade e dos Estudos Culturais. A pesquisa buscou problematizar de que forma as redes de atendimento que deveriam se constituir como redes de proteção à infância e adolescência compreendem esse fenômeno e de que modo crianças e adolescentes do gênero feminino em situação de exploração sexual vivenciam tal realidade. Para tanto, foram produzidos materiais de pesquisa a partir de três fontes. O material 1 partiu de uma pesquisa documental realizada durante um período de 3 meses em uma delegacia especializada em violência contra crianças e adolescentes, sendo selecionados três inquéritos envolvendo casos de exploração sexual. O material 2 consistiu de entrevistas realizadas com seis participantes profissionais atuantes tanto nas organizações de enfrentamento como nos serviços de atendimento, utilizando-se um roteiro semiestruturado. O material 3 partiu do acompanhamento a três meninas/jovens, com idades entre 11 e 14 anos, identificadas em situação de exploração sexual e atendidas nos serviços de acolhimento na modalidade casa-lar e abrigo. Foram realizados encontros com grupos focais e entrevistas individuais seguindo-se um roteiro semiestruturado. Os resultados apontaram que, nos processos de erotização precoce, analisados aqui como processos de pedofilização e que dão sustentação à cultura do estupro, a/o violência/abuso sexual se fez presente na vida das meninas/jovens interlocutoras desta pesquisa. O forte investimento erótico no corpo jovem feminino, em suas pedagogias de gênero e de sexualidade vivenciadas nas relações afetivas familiares, perpassou desde as figuras masculinas mais próximas, como padrasto, padrinho, tio, avô e irmão, além das próprias mães, que, de alguma forma, reconheciam (ou atribuíam) esse poder em suas filhas pelo simples fato de serem jovens. Por parte dos homens, esse corpo jovem exerce um fascínio, despertado a partir de uma erotização das desigualdades, seja pela questão geracional ou ainda pelos atravessamentos de classe social, reafirmando, assim, uma masculinidade heteronormativa e perpetrando uma sexualidade vista como “desenfreada” e facilmente cedida aos “apelos” femininos juvenis. Tal perspectiva é legitimada pela figura materna, que, nas negociações de suas filhas com esses homens, colocam os corpos jovens de suas meninas como disponíveis, para também terem acesso ao poder econômico por eles exercido. Diante de toda a estimulação sexual impressa nessas meninas/jovens, a exploração sexual acaba por ser uma das possibilidades de expressão e exercício da sexualidade, sendo uma estratégia utilizada por elas para serem reconhecidas e apreciadas enquanto mulheres. O trabalho das instituições de proteção torna-se complexo e dificultoso, principalmente por chegarem até as meninas tardiamente, quando elas já encontraram suas formas próprias de lidar com a violência sexual sofrida. Ao se darem conta dessa dificuldade, as meninas constroem estratégias para burlar as regras cotidianas desse controle institucional, emergindo como insubordinas, chegando mesmo a fugir dos abrigos ou casas-lares. Diante do quadro de insubordinação, elas passam a ser alvo de controle e normatização por parte do estado por meio da administração de um forte tratamento medicamentoso. Muito mais do que combater ou erradicar a exploração sexual – entendendo aqui que essa dimensão não pode ser abandonada – para que essa “proteção” possa cumprir os seus propósitos, as questões envolvidas nesses processos de erotização precoce necessitam ser reconhecidas, assim como os seus efeitos na vida dessas meninas/jovens. / The present study proposed to discuss and stress the concept of sexual exploitation as a theme based on the theoretical framework of Gender Studies, Studies of Sexuality, and Cultural Studies. The research aimed to discuss how the Child and Teenager Protection Network understands this phenomenon and how female children and adolescents that experience sexual exploitation live this reality. To this end, research material from three different sources was produced. Material 1 came from a documentary research conducted over a period of three months in a Police Station specialized in violence against children and adolescents. Three surveys that involved cases of sexual exploitation have been selected. Material 2 consisted of interviews conducted with six professional participants working both in coping and in customers service organizations following a semi-structured guide. Material 3 started from monitoring the three girls/young people aged between 11 and 14 identified in a situation of sexual exploitation assisted in childcare services in private-home and shelter. Meetings were held with focus groups and individual interviews following a semi-structured guide. The results indicated that, in cases of early eroticism analyzed here as processes of pedophilização lending support to the rape culture, violence/sexual abuse was present in the life of the surveyed girls/young women. The strong erotic investment in the young female body, in its pedagogies of gender and sexuality experienced in the family, affective relations ranged from the closest male figures such as stepfather, godfather, uncle, grandfather and brother besides the mothers themselves who somehow recognized (or attributed to) that power in their daughters simply because they were young. On the part of men, this young body exerts a fascination, awakened from an erotization of the inequalities, either by the generational question or by the crossings of social class, thus reaffirming a heteronormative masculinity and perpetrating a sexuality seen as “wild” and easily transferred to the young feminine “appeals”. Such a perspective is legitimized by the mother figure who in the negotiation of their daughters with these men, make their young bodies available, to have access, also, to the economic power they exercise. And in the face of all sexual stimulation printed in these girls/young women, sexual exploitation ends up being one of the possibilities of expression and exercise of sexuality. It is also a strategy used by girls to be recognized and appreciated as women. The work of the protection institutions becomes complex and difficult mainly because they arrive too late to young people when they have already found their own ways of dealing with their suffered sexual violence. And when they realize this difficulty, the girls construct strategies to circumvent the daily rules of this institutional control, emerging as insubordinate fleeing from the private-homes and shelters. In face of the insubordination they become the target of control and standardization on the part of the state through the administration of a strong drug treatment. Much more than combat or eradicate sexual exploitation - understand here that this dimension cannot be abandoned – so that this “protection” can fulfill its purposes, the issues involved in these processes of early erotization need to be recognized as well as its effects on the lives of these girls/young people.

O presente estudo se propôs a discutir e tensionar o conceito de exploração sexual a partir do referencial teórico dos Estudos de Gênero, dos Estudos da Sexualidade e dos Estudos Culturais. A pesquisa buscou problematizar de que forma as redes de atendimento que deveriam se constituir como redes de proteção à infância e adolescência compreendem esse fenômeno e de que modo crianças e adolescentes do gênero feminino em situação de exploração sexual vivenciam tal realidade. Para tanto, foram produzidos materiais de pesquisa a partir de três fontes. O material 1 partiu de uma pesquisa documental realizada durante um período de 3 meses em uma delegacia especializada em violência contra crianças e adolescentes, sendo selecionados três inquéritos envolvendo casos de exploração sexual. O material 2 consistiu de entrevistas realizadas com seis participantes profissionais atuantes tanto nas organizações de enfrentamento como nos serviços de atendimento, utilizando-se um roteiro semiestruturado. O material 3 partiu do acompanhamento a três meninas/jovens, com idades entre 11 e 14 anos, identificadas em situação de exploração sexual e atendidas nos serviços de acolhimento na modalidade casa-lar e abrigo. Foram realizados encontros com grupos focais e entrevistas individuais seguindo-se um roteiro semiestruturado. Os resultados apontaram que, nos processos de erotização precoce, analisados aqui como processos de pedofilização e que dão sustentação à cultura do estupro, a/o violência/abuso sexual se fez presente na vida das meninas/jovens interlocutoras desta pesquisa. O forte investimento erótico no corpo jovem feminino, em suas pedagogias de gênero e de sexualidade vivenciadas nas relações afetivas familiares, perpassou desde as figuras masculinas mais próximas, como padrasto, padrinho, tio, avô e irmão, além das próprias mães, que, de alguma forma, reconheciam (ou atribuíam) esse poder em suas filhas pelo simples fato de serem jovens. Por parte dos homens, esse corpo jovem exerce um fascínio, despertado a partir de uma erotização das desigualdades, seja pela questão geracional ou ainda pelos atravessamentos de classe social, reafirmando, assim, uma masculinidade heteronormativa e perpetrando uma sexualidade vista como “desenfreada” e facilmente cedida aos “apelos” femininos juvenis. Tal perspectiva é legitimada pela figura materna, que, nas negociações de suas filhas com esses homens, colocam os corpos jovens de suas meninas como disponíveis, para também terem acesso ao poder econômico por eles exercido. Diante de toda a estimulação sexual impressa nessas meninas/jovens, a exploração sexual acaba por ser uma das possibilidades de expressão e exercício da sexualidade, sendo uma estratégia utilizada por elas para serem reconhecidas e apreciadas enquanto mulheres. O trabalho das instituições de proteção torna-se complexo e dificultoso, principalmente por chegarem até as meninas tardiamente, quando elas já encontraram suas formas próprias de lidar com a violência sexual sofrida. Ao se darem conta dessa dificuldade, as meninas constroem estratégias para burlar as regras cotidianas desse controle institucional, emergindo como insubordinas, chegando mesmo a fugir dos abrigos ou casas-lares. Diante do quadro de insubordinação, elas passam a ser alvo de controle e normatização por parte do estado por meio da administração de um forte tratamento medicamentoso. Muito mais do que combater ou erradicar a exploração sexual – entendendo aqui que essa dimensão não pode ser abandonada – para que essa “proteção” possa cumprir os seus propósitos, as questões envolvidas nesses processos de erotização precoce necessitam ser reconhecidas, assim como os seus efeitos na vida dessas meninas/jovens. / The present study proposed to discuss and stress the concept of sexual exploitation as a theme based on the theoretical framework of Gender Studies, Studies of Sexuality, and Cultural Studies. The research aimed to discuss how the Child and Teenager Protection Network understands this phenomenon and how female children and adolescents that experience sexual exploitation live this reality. To this end, research material from three different sources was produced. Material 1 came from a documentary research conducted over a period of three months in a Police Station specialized in violence against children and adolescents. Three surveys that involved cases of sexual exploitation have been selected. Material 2 consisted of interviews conducted with six professional participants working both in coping and in customers service organizations following a semi-structured guide. Material 3 started from monitoring the three girls/young people aged between 11 and 14 identified in a situation of sexual exploitation assisted in childcare services in private-home and shelter. Meetings were held with focus groups and individual interviews following a semi-structured guide. The results indicated that, in cases of early eroticism analyzed here as processes of pedophilização lending support to the rape culture, violence/sexual abuse was present in the life of the surveyed girls/young women. The strong erotic investment in the young female body, in its pedagogies of gender and sexuality experienced in the family, affective relations ranged from the closest male figures such as stepfather, godfather, uncle, grandfather and brother besides the mothers themselves who somehow recognized (or attributed to) that power in their daughters simply because they were young. On the part of men, this young body exerts a fascination, awakened from an erotization of the inequalities, either by the generational question or by the crossings of social class, thus reaffirming a heteronormative masculinity and perpetrating a sexuality seen as “wild” and easily transferred to the young feminine “appeals”. Such a perspective is legitimized by the mother figure who in the negotiation of their daughters with these men, make their young bodies available, to have access, also, to the economic power they exercise. And in the face of all sexual stimulation printed in these girls/young women, sexual exploitation ends up being one of the possibilities of expression and exercise of sexuality. It is also a strategy used by girls to be recognized and appreciated as women. The work of the protection institutions becomes complex and difficult mainly because they arrive too late to young people when they have already found their own ways of dealing with their suffered sexual violence. And when they realize this difficulty, the girls construct strategies to circumvent the daily rules of this institutional control, emerging as insubordinate fleeing from the private-homes and shelters. In face of the insubordination they become the target of control and standardization on the part of the state through the administration of a strong drug treatment. Much more than combat or eradicate sexual exploitation - understand here that this dimension cannot be abandoned – so that this “protection” can fulfill its purposes, the issues involved in these processes of early erotization need to be recognized as well as its effects on the lives of these girls/young people.

No / This article highlights the importance of examining physical and psychological health in the context of youth sexual exploitation by drawing on findings from an empirical research study undertaken between 2006 and 2011. Data were drawn from interviews with 24 sexually exploited young people and 61 professionals working in agencies supporting sexually exploited young people. A sequential mixed-method approach was employed to address the research study aims using interviews and a questionnaire survey. A significant range of physical and psychological health problems were reported alongside risks to health and barriers to health support for sexually exploited young people. Intentional self-harm and substance abuse were concordant themes from phases 1 and 2. Psychosocial vulnerability factors appear to undermine health and affect health-seeking behavior. Novel themes that emerged from this study included taxonomy of risk behaviors related to health.