Background. Hardware-accelerated ray tracing has enabled ray traced reflections for real-time applications such as games. However, the number of rays traced each frame must be kept low to achieve expected frame rates. Therefore, techniques such as rendering the reflections at quarter resolution are used to limit the number of rays traced each frame. The new hardware features inline ray tracing, and hardware variable rate shading (VRS) could be combined to limit the rays even further. Objectives. The first goal is to use hardware VRS to limit the number of rays even further than rendering the reflections at quarter resolution, while maintaining the visual quality in the final rendered image. The second goal is to determine if inline ray tracing provides better performance than using ray generation shaders. Methods. Experiments are performed on a ray traced reflections pipeline using different techniques to generate rays. The techniques use inline ray tracing, inline ray tracing combined with VRS, and ray generation shaders. These are compared and evaluated using performance tests and the image evaluator \FLIP. Results. The results show that limiting the number of rays with hardware VRS result in a performance increase. The difference in visual quality between using inline ray tracing with VRS and previous techniques remain comparable. The performance tests show that inline ray tracing performs worse than ray generation shaders with increased scene complexity. Conclusions. The conclusion is that hardware VRS can be used to limit the number of rays and achieve better performance while visual quality remain comparable to previous techniques. Inline ray tracing does not perform better than ray generation shaders for workloads similar to ray traced reflections. / Bakgrund. Hårdvaruaccelererad strålspårning har möjliggjort strålspårade reflektioner för realtidsapplikationer såsom spel. Däremot måste antalet strålar som spåras hållas lågt för att förväntade bildfrekvenser ska uppnås. Därför används renderings-tekniker som att rendera reflektioner i en fjärdedels upplösning för att begränsa mängden strålar. De nya teknikerna inline strålspårning och hårdvarubaserad variable rate shading (VRS) kan användas för att minska antalet strålar ytterliggare. Syfte. Det första målet är att använda hårdvarubaserad VRS för att minska antalet strålar ytterligare jämfört med att rendera reflektioner i en fjärdedels upplösning, men samtidigt upprätthålla den visuella kvalitén. Det andra målet är att avgöra om inline strålspårning ger bättre prestanda än att använda strålgenererings shaders för reflektioner. Metod. För att svara på forskningsfrågorna ufördes experiment på en strålspårad reflektionspipeline med olika tekniker för att generera strålar. Teknikerna som testas är inline strålspårning, inline strålspårning kombinerat med VRS, samt strålgenererings shaders. Dessa jämförs och evalueras med prestandatester och bild-evaulatorn \FLIP. Resultat. Resultaten visar att minska mängden strålar med hårdvarubaserad VRS resulterar i en prestandaökning. Skillnaden i visuell kvalité mellan inline strålspårning kombinerat med VRS och tidigare tekniker är jämförbara. Prestandatesterna visar att inline strålspårning presterar värre än strålgenererings shaders vid ökad scenkomplexitet. Slutsatser. Slutsatsen är att hårdvarubaserad VRS kan användas för att minska antalet strålar och resultera i bättre prestanda, medan den visuella kvalitén är jämförbar med tidigare tekniker. Inline strålspårning ger inte bättre prestanda än strålgenererings shaders vid strålspårade reflektioner och liknande arbetsbelastning.

Purpose: During the summer, overheating in buildings is becoming more common, but at the same time the passive heat from the sun during the winter can be utilized. This project investigates which solar shading is the best alternative to use in new buildings in Kungsbacka municipality. Method: There are three main aspects that this project focuses on, which are economics, energy and thermal climate. To perform the examination in this project, two rooms in two different schools have been examined with four different solar shading options. The solar shading options are fixed solar shading with a 30 degree inclination, fixed solar shading with 45 degree inclination,  variable sun-controlled solar shading, and variable scheduled solar shading. Results: The results of the study shows that variable sun-controlled solar shading provides the best indoor climate from a thermal aspect, and provides the lowest cooling needs as it reduces the amount of passive energy supplied through the window. Variable solar shading is expensive to purchase, maintain and operate. Fixed solar shading types have a cheaper purchase price and have no operation or maintenance costs. Conclusions: you can say that the choice of solar shading types depends on the conditions one has. Given the results from the case studied in this project,  variable sun-controlled solar shading type is better than fixed solar shading but more costly. / Överhettning i byggnader blir med tiden alltmer vanligt under sommaren, men däremot vill man kunna utnyttjapassiva värmen från solen under vintertiden. Detta problem väcker intresse för vilka solskydd typer som ger bästa solavskärmning under sommaren och släpper in mest solvärme under vinter. I detta arbete undersöks vilka solskydd som skulle vara bäst att användas i nya byggnader i Kungsbacka kommun. Det finns tre huvudaspekter som detta arbete fokuserar på, och dessa är ekonomi, energi och termiskt klimat.För att utföra undersökningen i arbetet har två rum i två olika skolor undersökts med fyra olika solskyddsalternativ. De olika solskydd typer som har undersökts är, fast solskydd med 30 och 45 graders lutning samt rörliga solstyrda och schemalagda solskydd. Datainsamlingen i arbetet bygger mest på krav från beställare och myndigheter samt mätningar från rummen som har undersökts. För att studera de två fallen utfördes simuleringar i IDA-ICE i form av värde tabeller från modeller som har ritats med samma förutsättningar som rummen har. Resultatet av undersökningen visar att rörligt solstyrt solskydd ger bästa inomhusklimat ur termisk aspekt, samt ger lägsta kylbehov eftersom den minskar den tillförda passiva energimängden genom fönstret. Däremot är rörliga solskydd dyra i inköp, underhåll och drift. Men de har ganska lång livslängd som skulle genom tiden spara på energi om man har aktiv kylning i byggnaden. I detta arbete var termisk komfort utgående punkt för valet av solskydd då aktiv kylning saknades i både skolorna. Fasta solskydd typer är billigare i inköpspriset och har ingen drift eller underhållskostnader, men det visade sig att de inte är lika effektiva som rörliga solskydd typer när det gäller termisk komfort under sommaren. Valet av solskydd beror helt på vad man är intresserad av och ifall man har aktiv kylning eller inte. När det gäller transmissionsförluster genom fönstren vid användning av olika solskydd typer så visade det sig att det blev nästan samma förluster oavsett vilken solskydd typ som används. Det beror helt på själva fönstrets egenskaper som i både fallen var bra. Slutligen kan man säga att valet av solskydd typer beror på förutsättningarna man har. Resultaten från fallet som studerades i detta arbete är att rörliga solskydds typer är bättre än fast solskydd men dyrare. Det finns dock en kostnadsskillnad när det gäller kylning över längre perioder.

In this thesis, we investigate the formulation, optimization and ambiguities in single-image 3D surface reconstruction from geometric and photometric constraints. We examine linear, discrete and quadratic constraints for shape from planar curves, shape from texture, and shape from shading. The problem of recovering 3D shape from the projection of planar curves on a surface is strongly motivated by perception studies. Applications include single-view modeling and uncalibrated structured light. When the curves intersect, the problem leads to a linear system for which a direct least-squares method is sensitive to noise. We derive a more stable solution and show examples where the same method produces plausible surfaces from the projection of parallel (non-intersecting) planar cross sections. The problem of reconstructing a smooth surface under constraints that have discrete ambiguities arise in areas such as shape from texture, shape from shading, photometric stereo and shape from defocus. While the problem is computationally hard, heuristics based on semidefinite programming may reveal the shape of the surface. Finally, we examine the shape from shading problem without boundary conditions as a polynomial system. This formulation allows, in generic cases, a complete solution for ideal polyhedral objects. For the general case we propose a semidefinite programming relaxation procedure, and an exact line search iterative procedure with a new smoothness term that favors folds at edges. We use this numerical technique to inspect shading ambiguities.

Since the introduction of programmable Graphics Processing Units (GPUs) and procedural shaders, hardware vendors have each developed their own individual real-time shading language standard. None of these shading languages is fully platform independent. Although this real-time programmable shader technology could be developed into 3D application on a single system, this platform dependent limitation keeps the shader technology away from 3D Internet applications. The primary purpose of this dissertation is to design a framework for translating different shader formats to platform independent shaders and embed them into the eXtensible 3D (X3D) scene for 3D web applications. This framework includes a back-end core shader converter, which translates shaders among different shading languages with a middle XML layer. Also included is a shader library containing a basic set of shaders that developers can load and add shaders to. This framework will then be applied to some applications in Biomolecular Visualization.

In this thesis, we investigate the formulation, optimization and ambiguities in single-image 3D surface reconstruction from geometric and photometric constraints. We examine linear, discrete and quadratic constraints for shape from planar curves, shape from texture, and shape from shading. The problem of recovering 3D shape from the projection of planar curves on a surface is strongly motivated by perception studies. Applications include single-view modeling and uncalibrated structured light. When the curves intersect, the problem leads to a linear system for which a direct least-squares method is sensitive to noise. We derive a more stable solution and show examples where the same method produces plausible surfaces from the projection of parallel (non-intersecting) planar cross sections. The problem of reconstructing a smooth surface under constraints that have discrete ambiguities arise in areas such as shape from texture, shape from shading, photometric stereo and shape from defocus. While the problem is computationally hard, heuristics based on semidefinite programming may reveal the shape of the surface. Finally, we examine the shape from shading problem without boundary conditions as a polynomial system. This formulation allows, in generic cases, a complete solution for ideal polyhedral objects. For the general case we propose a semidefinite programming relaxation procedure, and an exact line search iterative procedure with a new smoothness term that favors folds at edges. We use this numerical technique to inspect shading ambiguities.

This thesis describes methods for lighting calculations of large scenes used in modern computer games. Forward shading and deferred shading methods are discussed and compared. Capabilities of raytracing are shortly described. There are some information about various methods for casting shadows, simulation of particle systems and applying post-processing effects. In the end there is a design of architecture for rendering complex scenes with use of XNA and description of implementation used in resulting game.

De plus en plus d'importance est accordée à la création d'objets 3D en raison des récents essors technologiques. Il est donc crucial de fournir des outils appropriés et accessibles aux utilisateurs de tous les horizons. Malheureusement, les outils traditionnellement utilisés en création 3D sont conçus pour des professionnels, exigent des formations complexes et de longue durée, et ne sont pas adaptés à ceux inexperimentés qui forment la vaste majorité des utilisateurs potentiels. Nous proposons un outil de création simplifié qui utilise des méthodes inspirées d'esquisses. Dans un premier temps, le maillage désiré est créé à partir d'un contour tracé. L'intérieur est gonflé suivant la méthode de Dvoroznak et al. Dans un deuxième temps, la hauteur des sommets du maillage est manipulée en modifiant les courbes formées par l'ombrage. Cet ombrage provient d'un modèle de réflexion Lambertien pour une lumière directionnelle donnée. Notre méthode consiste à utiliser les courbes formées par la méthode des charactéristiques associée au problème de figure dérivée de l'ombre (Shape-From-Shading). Avec les courbes, nous identifions les régions affectées par la modification de l'ombrage. L'une de ces régions sera utilisée pour interpoler l'ombrage d'après la nouvelle isophote. À partir de ce nouvel ombrage, les courbes de la méthode des characteristiques seront utilisées afin de trouver le nouveau déplacement en s'assurant d'altérer uniquement la région affectée par le changement dans l'ombrage. Les maillages créés peuvent ensuite être combinés suivant la méthode proposée par Dvoroznak et al. afin de former un maillage unique et complexe. Notre outil se veut plus intuitif que les outils traditionnels de création. Nos résultats en illustrent le potentiel. / Due to recent technological advances, the creation of 3D objects is becoming more important. It is critical to offer appropriate and accessible tools to users from diverse backgrounds. Unfortunately, the tools traditionally used in 3D creation are designed for professionals, require complex and time-consuming training, and are unsuitable for inexperienced users who form the vast majority of potential users. We propose a simplified creation tool that uses sketch-based methods. First, the desired mesh is created from a traced outline. The interior is inflated following the method of Dvoroznak et al. Second, the height (displacement) of the mesh is achieved by altering the strips created by shading. Shading is the result of a Lambertian reflection model for a given directional light. Our method consists of using the strips from the method of characteristics applied to solve Shape-From-Shading. Using the strips, we identify the regions affected by the change in shading. One of these regions will be used to interpolate the shading according to the new isophote. From this new shading, the characteristic strips will be used to find the new height, ensuring that only the region affected by the change in shading is altered. The meshes created can then be combined, inspired by the method proposed by Dvoroznak et al. to form a single, complex mesh. Our tool is designed to be more intuitive than the ones provided by professional 3D software. Our results illustrate its potential.

The usage of conventional energy applications generates disproportionate emissions of greenhouse gases and the consumption of part of the energy resources available in the world. It has become an important problem which has serious effects on the climatic change. Therefore, it is crucial to reduce these emissions as much as possible. To be able to achieve this, renewable energy technologies must be used instead of conventional energy applications. Solar Photovoltaic (PV) technologies do not release greenhouse gas emissions directly and can save more than 30 million tonnes of carbon per exajoule of electricity generated relative to a natural gas turbine running at 45% efficiency. Shadowing is one of the most important aspects that affects the performance of PV systems. Consequently, many investigations through this topic are being done in order to develop new technologies which mitigate the impact of shadowing during PV production. In order to minimise the impact of shadowing it is desired to be able to predict the performance of a system with PV-modules during shadowing. In this thesis a simulation program for calculating the IV-curve for series connected PV-modules during partial shadowing has been developed and experimentally validated. PV systems modelling and simulation in LTspice environment has been presented and validated by means of a comparative analysis with the experimental results obtained in a set of tests performed in the laboratory of Gävle University. Experimental measurements were carried out in two groups. The first group corresponds with the experiments done in the string of six modules with bypass diodes while the measurements of the second group have been performed on a single PV module at HIG University. The simulation results of both groups demonstrated a remarkable agreement with the experimental data, which means that the model designed at LTspice supposes a very useful tool that can be used to study the performance of PV systems. This tool contributes to the investigations in this topic and it aims to benefit future installations providing a better knowledge of the shading problem. The master’s thesis shows an in-depth description of the required method to design a PV cell, a PV module and a PV array using LTspice IV and the input parameters as well as the needed tests to adjust the models. Moreover, it has been carried out a pedagogical study describing the effect that different shadow configurations have in the performance of solar cells. This study facilitates the understanding of the performance of PV modules under different shadowing effects. Lastly, it has also been discussed the benefits of installing some newer technologies, like DC-DC optimizers or module inverters, to mitigate the shadowing effects. The main conclusion about this topic has been that although most of the times the output power will be increased with the use of optimizers sometimes the optimizer does not present any benefits.

It is essential to always track maximum power from photovoltaic (PV) sources. Failure to track the global maximum power point under partial shading conditions is one of the major reasons that lead to significant power losses. Several maximum power point tracking methods have been proposed to deal with this problem. However, none of them were able to effectively identify the occurrence of partial shading. With the facility of Matlab modelling and simulation as well as the aid of a constructed solar emulator, the power-voltage characteristics of a PV panel under uniform and non-uniform irradiance conditions have been studied and some useful conclusions have been identified from observation. Based on these conclusions, a novel maximum power point tracking algorithm has been proposed, which is capable of identifying the occurrence of partial shading hence determining the need for a global scan over the operation range of PV panels for the true maximum power point. In the meantime, the effect of PV dynamics, due to the capacitance of PV cells, on maximum power point trackers has been investigated and some initial results and suggestions have been presented in this work.

How important is a perfect index of refraction value for the look of a material? Does everything have to be physically accurate to be percieved as a photorealistic material? There are some aspects of a lot of materials that is already physically measured, like its reflectance values. Are all these measurements enough to create a material that can be percieved as photorealistic, or are there other more diffuse things that needs and artistic input? This paper will take silver as an example. Silver often has two distinct types of oxidation: one semi-transparent yellow-ish coating and one more black opaque tarnish. Is this something that can be dialed in from derived data? What properties of the metal will change when the oxidation occurs and how will it affect it look of it from a shading perspective? Silver utilitys will be thoroughly examined to make out what important visual cues there are, and what they are made of. This information will then be used to create a silver material that could be percieved as real. A reference silver cup will be used as a comparison next to the rendered material.