The thesis discusses the differences and the role of the traditional centers of international trade. It is conducted through comparative analysis of the two ports in the open and closed economy - Rotterdam and Alexandria. In the first chapter, that is based on the theoretical and analytical frame, are specified the relevant facts and empirical findings in the field of international trade, centers of the international trade and maritime transport. The second chapter named Characterization and comparison of national economies deeper investigates the environment in which are the selected ports located. Chapter three and four deal with the Rotterdam respectively Alexandria in the detail view consisting of a historical context, profile and description of the port, the commodity structure, current development, future plans, related industrial regions and areas. The last chapter contains a comparison of the Rotterdam and Alexandria, including SWOT analysis.

The diploma thesis deals with the energy security of China, mainly with the question considering energy mix, consumption, infrastructure network and diversification of importers in natural gas field. The analysis of research question is done mainly from the data of international energy organizations, from the Chinese government data and other sources, which enable to describe mentioned problems. From the People's Republic of China perspective, it focuses on the detailed description of gas pipeline infrastructure, importers and subjects, which are involved in energy sector. Risks and threats, which should occur from signed partnerships or projects, were taken into consideration too. The aim of this work is to define and evaluate the energy security of PRC, its energy policy mainly in natural gas field when considering present situation as well as possibilities for the future. Than the diploma thesis outlines the role of natural gas in Chinese energy mix, state of the gas sector in China and evaluation of projects, which take place in China's gas sector or will occur in the future.

As same as other countries in the world, China is also facing the problem of a severe shortage of energy. Specifically, the demand for natural gas is rising explosively after the energy consumption structure has changed from oil to gas. Due to various reasons and motivations, shale has been considered having great reserves and believed in alleviating the energy crisis. Nevertheless, the massive investment in developing shale has a disappointing interest with low-yielding production. Scholars have done many researches and experiments for investigating the causes and increasing the productivity of shale formation, in field and in laboratory respectively. Based on the statistics, more details, and further discussion, in this dissertation a probable method for more effectively producing was demonstrated. Although the hydro-fracturing technology has been conducted in field frequently, sometimes the decrease of permeability has been observed after the treatment. To figure out this phenomenon, the investigation started from the basic characterization of matrix. Believed in the most component in shale, quartz consisted of silica which could dissolve in fluid. Been assigned as variables, temperature, pH, and salinity have been implemented for explanation of dissolution. Temperature played a great role in the process. Combined with confining pressure, the reconsolidation happened inside samples. Through more experiments the mechanism of reconsolidation has been discovered that both confining pressure and temperature are necessary for gelling in fracture. Perspective on the whole formation, well logs were a super supplement to laboratory experiments. It serviced not only a further confirmation, but also pointed out the relationship between desorption capacity and different components. Samples from upper and lower formations have been used for going further. The exchange which exists between N2 and CH4 could be a great idea to exploit gas from reservoir. Feldspar supported space for adsorbed gas, and it was also easy to release. In contrast, the organic matter in which a network of pores developed has ability to trap the gas deeply because of the specific surface area. Quartz had positive effect on production because of containing the organic matter, while the influence of clay minerals on adsorption and desorption could be neglected. Based on the analysis of reconsolidation and desorption, an idea has been conceived using foam as fracturing fluid for increasing gas production. Compared to the pure fluid, foam has less water, which could prevent the reconsolidation. Nitrogen could be the gas to foam. The exchange between N2 and CH4 will increase the production of gas. In order to serve the condition that increases the time of exchange and makes negative effect on reconsolidation simultaneously, the foaming test with ABS and K12 has been evaluated first. For better stability of foam more experiment have been done. Three formulas were recommended which could keep the balance between the increasing viscosity and decreasing volume. The work interpreted in this thesis has enhanced our understanding of microscopic properties of shale and was expected to make contribution to further research of fracturing and production design.

<div>As the global population approaches 10 billion by the mid-century, supplying all the needs of the human race from the Earth’s limited land area and resources with minimized greenhouse gas emission will be the essential challenge of sustainability. In a sustainable economy, all renewable energy, in combination with carbon sources and other elements from the nature, such as water, air and land, will be used synergistically to produce building blocks for human beings. These building blocks, including electricity, heat, fuels, hydrogen, etc., will enable the production of all the end uses for human beings. The challenge for chemical engineers is to come up with processes and synergistic strategies to enable such a sustainable future.</div><div><br></div><div>Shale gas can serve as both energy resource and chemical feedstock for the transition period towards a sustainable economy, and has the potential to be a carbon source for the long term. Natural gas liquids contained in shale gas provide abundant feedstock for chemical and fuel production and could bring extra value for remote shale gas basins. Unlike current shale gas processing where large scales are preferred, simple and intensified processes with least processing steps and least pieces of equipment are favored for remote shale plays. While conventional shale gas processing usually follows a four-section hierarchy of "gas treatment - NGL recovery - NGL fractionation - NGL activation", four innovative configurations are proposed for simpler and intensified process design, including NGL co-processing, integrated NGL recovery and activation, switched NGL recovery and activation, and eliminated NGL recovery. A two-step conversion of NGLs to liquid hydrocarbons via dehydrogenation followed by oligomerization is used as an example to show how these innovative process designs evolve. Simulation results show that the loss of ethane, the NGL component with the highest concentration, could be largely reduced by the innovative process configurations. At the same time, higher yield of liquid products, fewer processing steps, reduced pieces of equipment and elimination of energy and capital-intensive units can be achieved. The intensification of process here would benefit the modularization of shale gas plants, and make it possible for distributed production of liquid hydrocarbons onsite for remote shale locations. </div><div><br></div><div>While shale gas being the carbon source for a sustainable future, renewable energy, especially solar and wind energy, will become the dominant energy resources for a sustainable economy. However, both solar and wind energy are dilute resources and harvesting them requires vast tracts of land, which could potentially compete with agricultural production for food. As a bookend case study, we investigate the land requirement for a 100% solar economy. The contiguous United States is used as an example and our analysis takes into account several issues that are usually ignored, such as the intermittent solar availability, estimation of future energy demand, actual power production from solar farms and available land types. Results show that it will be difficult for currently available land to meet the energy needs using current solar park designs for the entire contiguous United States and for nearly half of the individual states, which include well over half of the total US population. Barring radical improvements in agricultural output that could greatly reduce the land devoted to agriculture, the competition for land between energy and food seems inevitable, posing a major challenge to a future solar economy. If we extend the study to Germany, the United Kingdom and China, we could see that the challenge exists for both developed and developing countries. </div><div><br></div><div>To resolve the issue, a concept of "Aglectric" farming is proposed, where agricultural land produces electricity without diminishing existing agricultural output. Both wind turbines and photovoltaic (PV) panels can be used to generate electricity on agricultural land. While the use of the current PV panels is known to have a negative impact on crop growth, we propose several innovative PV systems using existing and new materials, innovative installation paradigms and module designs. Through extensive modeling of PV shadows throughout a day, we show that some of our designed PV systems could mitigate the loss of solar radiation while still maintaining substantial power output. Thus, it should be possible to design and install these PV systems on agricultural land to have significant power output without potentially diminishing agricultural production. We also show that PV aglectric farms alone will have the potential of realizing a 100% solar economy without land constraint. Together with regular PV parks and wind aglectric farms, PV aglectric farms will serve as an important option for a renewable future.</div><div><br></div><div>With its high energy density and zero greenhouse gas emission, hydrogen is the key energy carrier in a sustainable future. We introduce a process design strategy for the production of hydrogen by high temperature water electrolysis using concentrated solar thermal energy. At the same time, co-production of hydrogen and electricity is investigated where hydrogen can be produced by both thermochemical cycles and high temperature electrolysis. The process design features the process integration between hydrogen production and power generation. Process simulation is performed in an integrated Matlab and Aspen Plus platform. Efficiencies are analyzed for various processes.</div><div><br></div><div>Synergy is the key feature of all the studies in the dissertation. Process intensification for shale gas conversion and process integration for solar hydrogen production are examples of synergy at the process level. Coproduction of hydrogen and electricity and coproduction of electricity and food are examples of synergy at the building block level. Potential synergistic use of solar, wind and shale resources is an example of synergy at the resource level. Synergy is the keyword of the sustainable future we are pursuing.</div>

This work focuses on situations where two different sectors of human security - economic and environmental - clash. It uses the currently popular topic of shale gas in the United States in order to determine what happens when such conflict occurs. It also tries to find out which sector potentially dominates in this conflict. The first part of the work defines the research questions, states my preliminary working thesis and discusses sources used. The theoretical background of the whole work is then outlined in the second part. Special attention is given to the concept of human security and the Copenhagen school, i.e. to elements that widened the traditional perception of security. The second part, however, is also engaged in the definition of the theoretical framework of given security sectors in the context of US shale gas. The third part is the core of the work's research. Here, various mini case studies within the United States and their economic and environmental variables are discussed. The aim is to find out what happened in specific cases when the clash of the two sectors occurred. The fourth part aims to outline the possible factors not mentioned in the third part, which, however, could still play a role in the shaping of the results. In the fifth section, there is a preliminary analysis of...

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The effect of shale gas activities on ground-level ozone pollution in the Dallas-Fort Worth area is studied in detail here. Ozone is a highly reactive species with harmful effects on human and environment. Shale gas development, or fracking, involves activities such as hydraulic fracturing, drilling, fluid mixing, and trucks idling that are sources of nitrogen oxides (NOX) and volatile organic compounds (VOC), two of the most important precursors of ozone. In this study two independent approaches have been applied in evaluating the influences on ozone concentrations. In the first approach, the influence of meteorology were removed from ozone time series through the application of Kolmogorov-Zurbenko low-pass filter, logarithmic transformation, and subsequent multi-linear regression. Ozone measurement data were acquired from Texas Commission on Environmental Quality (TCEQ) monitoring stations for 14 years. The comparison between ozone trends in non-shale gas region and shale gas region shows increasing ozone trends at the monitoring stations in close proximity to the Barnett Shale activities. In the second approach, the CAMx photochemical model was used to assess the sensitivity of ozone to the NOX and VOC sources associated with shale oil and gas activities. Brute force method was applied on Barnett Shale and Haynesville Shale emission sources to generate four hypothetical scenarios. Ozone sensitivity analysis was performed for a future year of 2018 and it was based on the photochemical simulation that TCEQ had developed for demonstrating ozone attainment under the State Implementation Plan (SIP). Results showed various level of ozone impact at different locations within the DFW region attributed to area and point sources of emissions in the shale region. Maximum ozone impact due to shale gas activities is expected to be in the order of several parts per billion, while lower impacts on design values were predicted. The results from the photochemical modeling can be used for health impact assessment and air quality management purposes. Both studies in this research show that the impact of shale gas development on local and regional level of ozone is significant, and therefore, it should be considered in the implementation of effective air quality strategies.

Technologies such as horizontal wells and multi-stage hydraulic fracturing have made ultra-low permeability shale and tight gas reservoirs productive but the industry is still on the learning curve when it comes to addressing various production issues. Some of the problems encountered while hydraulically fracturing these reservoirs are the absence of frac barriers, thinner shales and the increased presence of geological hazards. Induced vertical fractures sometimes extend to an underlying aquifer and become a conduit to the well. We have developed a low-concentration, low-viscosity and delayed-crosslink polymeric gel system as a water shutoff agent for hydraulically-fractured tight gas and shale reservoirs, where some fractures might connect to water rich zones. The system also is a significant improvement over traditional flowing gels for fracture water shutoff in conventional reservoirs because of these features. The gel uses high molecular weight hydrolyzed polyacrylamide (HPAM) at low polymer concentrations with a delayed organic crosslinker. This crosslinker is more environmentally benign and provides much longer gelation time and stronger final gels than comparable polymer loadings with chromium carboxylate crosslinkers at higher temperatures. The low viscosity system allows low-pressure extrusion of gelant into the narrow-aperture fractures present in unconventional gas reservoirs. The gelant can be pumped at low pressures due to lower polymer concentrations and delayed gelation point. This allows the potential to seal problem zones that are producing excess water even when the fractures conducting water have very narrow apertures. By impeding water production, the gel system developed here can effectively delay water loading thereby avoiding abandonment or installation of expensive equipment with increased operational costs, thus extending life and reserves of unconventional gas wells.

Submitted by Stephanie Blattler (stblattler@gmail.com) on 2018-03-12T18:45:47Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Mestrado FGV - Dissertação - Stephanie Blattler - Versão Final - 12.03.2018.pdf: 772793 bytes, checksum: 107759c95799b83798ef3e00303c13aa (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Diego Andrade (diego.andrade@fgv.br) on 2018-03-13T16:57:34Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 Mestrado FGV - Dissertação - Stephanie Blattler - Versão Final - 12.03.2018.pdf: 772793 bytes, checksum: 107759c95799b83798ef3e00303c13aa (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-03-16T16:55:58Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Mestrado FGV - Dissertação - Stephanie Blattler - Versão Final - 12.03.2018.pdf: 772793 bytes, checksum: 107759c95799b83798ef3e00303c13aa (MD5) Previous issue date: 2018-02-06 / In Brazil, the debate regarding the exploration and production of shale gas became relevant with the 12th Bid Round promoted by the National Oil, Natural Gas and Biofuels Agency (ANP), which offered areas with great potential of such unconventional hydrocarbon. The country is listed as the tenth with greater shale gas potential in the world. However, due to the international controversy involving this energy source, mainly by virtue of its potential environmental impacts and damages, the matter was brought to the courts and is subject to legislative initiatives, so that the production of such hydrocarbon in Brazil has not started yet. Therefore, the present essay aims to clarify how the exploration and production of shale gas takes place and what would be its potential harmful effects to the environment, demonstrating that there are diverging scientific opinions over the most relevant of such effects. The description of the existing regulatory instruments in Brazil, such as ANP Resolution No. 21/2014, is also provided herein, as well as the description of the current legal proceedings and bills over the matter. Following, this essay also describes how the shale gas matter was solved in four states/countries, as to verify if there are any valuable lessons for Brazil. Based on the scientific uncertainty over the potential environmental damages and impacts, the precautionary rule is herein analyzed, aiming to understand how precaution may be applied to shale gas and to other cases under similar scientific uncertainty. Initially, the doctrine of absolute precaution is presented, followed by the main critics to precaution. Finally, the main conclusion is that the path of interpretation for the shale gas case and for other cases with similar scientific uncertainty is the use of the precautionary rule modulated by proportionality, so that its application does not reflect an immediate prohibition, but the management of uncertainties through regulation. / No Brasil, a discussão a respeito da exploração e produção de gás de folhelho, conhecido de forma equivocada como “gás de xisto”, ganhou expressividade com a 12ª Rodada de Licitações promovida pela Agência Nacional do Petróleo, Gás Natural e Biocombustíveis (ANP), que licitou áreas com grande potencial exploratório para esse hidrocarboneto não convencional. O país apresenta o décimo maior potencial de gás de folhelho do mundo, porém, em razão da polêmica internacional que envolve essa fonte energética, principalmente em função de seus potenciais impactos e danos ambientais, a questão permanece judicializada e objeto de iniciativas legislativas, de forma que a produção desse hidrocarboneto no Brasil ainda não foi iniciada. Nesse âmbito, o presente trabalho visa esclarecer como se dá a exploração e produção do gás de folhelho e quais seriam seus potenciais efeitos nocivos ao meio ambiente, demonstrando a divergência existente na comunidade científica sobre os mais relevantes desses potenciais efeitos. O trabalho também traz a descrição dos instrumentos regulatórios já existentes sobre o gás de folhelho no Brasil, como a Resolução ANP nº 21/2014, bem como dos processos judiciais e projetos de leis existentes sobre a questão. Em seguida, o presente trabalho também descreve como a questão do shale gas foi decidida em quatro estados/países, para verificar se podem ser extraídas lições para o Brasil. Com base na incerteza científica constatada sobre os potenciais danos e impactos ambientais, o postulado da precaução é aqui analisado, visando compreender como ele pode ser aplicado ao caso do gás de folhelho e a outros casos de incerteza científica análoga. Inicialmente, é apresentada a doutrina da precaução absoluta, para posteriormente introduzir as principais críticas ao postulado. Por fim, conclui-se que o caminho para a interpretação do caso do gás de folhelho e de outros casos em que recai incerteza científica análoga é a utilização do postulado da precaução modulado pela proporcionalidade, de modo que sua aplicação não reflita uma proibição imediata, mas sim o gerenciamento das incertezas envolvidas por meio da regulação.

Gas obtained from previously unexploited shale rock strata has emerged as an economically viable way of sourcing additional fossil fuel energy resources after the so-called ‘shale gas revolution’ in the United States. In the United Kingdom, the incumbent government has committed to the development of its own shale gas resources. A highly polarised public debate has erupted on the risks and rewards of extracting the shale gas deposits that presently lie underneath large swathes of the country using the controversial method of hydraulic fracturing, or ‘fracking’. This thesis examines how different groups in North West England – the major frontier of fracking in the UK – are contesting, resisting and negotiating the current government’s decision to sanction and push ahead towards the development a domestic shale gas industry. Employing a theoretical framework drawn from political ecology as its core mode of examination, this thesis utilises qualitative methods including in-depth interviews and participant observation techniques. It documents a range of social groupings that are contesting shale gas in the UK in a number of ways, and argues that landscapes and risk are fundamental hinges in this ongoing environmental conflict.