This thesis explores phosphate as an indicator of occupational intensity (i.e. as a function of scale and length of occupation) at shell midden sites on the central coast of British Columbia. Despite the prevalence of shell middens in coastal environments world-wide and the long history of elemental analysis in archaeology, shell middens are not routinely investigated for their chemical content. Ongoing research on the British Columbia central coast has shown clear associations between fish bone densities (NISP/L) and site area (m2), which have proven useful for characterizing variability among settlements in the region. This provided the opportunity and essential basis for investigating phosphate. Due to its general abundance, persistence, and established association with human activity, phosphate was expected to reflect previously inferred patterns in occupational intensity, which were based on fish bone density and site area data. Results show clear relationships between phosphate values, fish bone densities, and site area, which speaks to the utility of phosphate as an independent indicator of the relative intensity of residential activity among sites. / Thesis / Master of Arts (MA)

During the Late Woodland Period in the American Southeast, the amount of space that any individual group could exploit began to shrink, due to the presence of other groups on the landscape. Resource expansion occurred to augment food supplies, resulting in increased exploitation of mussel beds. Because mussels can be extremely sensitive to the characteristics of the waterways they live in, the specific habitat requirements of these animals can be used to reconstruct the environments they were recovered from. In this thesis I use freshwater mussel assemblages to reconstruct hypothetical aquatic catchments and map them onto modern rivers in the Yazoo River Basin and the Tombigbee River Basin. These are used to test ethnographic models of exploited space. I also use detrended correspondence analysis to test if sites exist in mathematical space like they do in physical space along the Yazoo River basin, as observed in the Tombigbee River basin.

Les variations multidécennales et saisonnières de la Mousson Ouest-Africaine (MOA) au cours des deux derniers millénaires dans la région sahélienne sont peu documentées en raison du manque d'archives paléoclimatiques. Pour cela, on se propose dans ce travail de thèse d'explorer une nouvelle archive paléoclimatique basée sur l'étude sclérochronologique des coquilles du mollusque bivalve Anadara senilis dans des amas coquilliers fossiles afin de reconstituer les variations hydrologiques multidécennales et saisonnières dans le Delta du Saloum au Sénégal de 460 à 1090 A.D. L'hydrologie de cet estuaire hypersalin est très sensible aux variations de la MOA. Les variations hydrologiques passées sont reconstituées à travers des analyses isotopiques (δ18O, δ13C) des coquilles modernes et des coquilles fossiles dans le delta. Le signal isotopique saisonnier de ces coquilles retrace fidèlement les variations hydrologiques liées au régime de la mousson. Nos résultats montrent que ces variations isotopiques, associées aux stries de croissance dont la périodicité est connue, permettent de reconstituer les durées des saisons avec une précision de 25 jours, une précision jamais atteinte dans les études paléoclimatiques antérieures dans la région sahélienne. Les variations hydrologiques multidécennales sont reconstituées à travers la composition isotopique des coquilles fossiles prélevées dans un amas coquillier massif (Dioron Boumak) dont le taux d'accumulation est très important. Les coquilles fossiles prélevées dans cet amas présentent des valeurs isotopiques moyennes en δ18O plus négatives de 1.4 ‰ par rapport à leurs analogues modernes. Ceci est une indication que les conditions hydrologiques étaient plus douces qu'aujourd'hui dans le Saloum qui n'était pas hypersalin à cette époque. Le bilan Précipitation-Evaporation était par conséquent plus positif en réponse à des pluies plus intenses et/ou plus étalées dans le temps de 460 à 1090 A.D. Il semblerait que les pluies hivernales et printanières, caractéristiques de la frange littorale sénégalo-mauritanienne, plutôt rares et insignifiantes de nos jours se produisaient plus fréquemment pendant cette période. La jonction entre ces pluies et les pluies de mousson aurait favorisé l'établissement de saisons des pluies beaucoup plus longues (~5 mois environ au lieu de 3 aujourd'hui) et une augmentation du bilan Précipitation-Evaporation. Cette étude met en lumière le potentiel considérable d'A. senilis comme archive paléoclimatique à haute résolution de la variabilité des précipitation dans la région sénégalaise. Elle montre également l'importance de la saisonnalité des précipitations dans les cycles hydrologiques passés dans cette région qui doit être prise en compte dans les études paléoclimatiques futures. / The multidecadal and seasonal variations of the West African Monsoon (WAM) in the last two millennia remain poorly documented in the Sahel region because paleoclimate archives are lacking. For this, we propose in this PhD thesis a sclerochronological study of the mollusk bivalve Anadara senilis from massive shell middens to reconstruct multidecadal and seasonal variations of hydrological conditions in the Saloum Delta (Senegal) between AD 460 and 1090. Hydrological conditions in this hypersaline estuary are highly sensitive to the WAM variations.Past hydrological variations are reconstructed by using isotopic composition (δ18O, δ13C) of modern and fossil shells in this Delta. The shells' seasonal isotopic signals reflect faithfully hydrological variations, linked to monsoonal regime. Our results show that the variations of these seasonal isotopic signals, associated to shell growth patterns with known periodicities allow the reconstruction of season durations with a precision of 25 days, a precision that has never been achieved in paleoclimate studies in the Sahel region.Multidecadal variations of hydrological conditions are reconstructed by using isotopic composition of fossil shells collected in the massive shell middens (Dioron Boumak), characterized by high accumulation rate. The averaged δ18O value of fossil shells was more negative by 1.4‰ compared to modern shells' isotopic signature. This result indicates fresher mean conditions in the Saloum Delta that was likely not hypersaline as it is today. The precipitation-evaporation budget was thus more positive in response to a more intense and/or longer rainfall season during from AD 460 to 1090. We propose that winter and early spring rainfall events, which are observed very occasionally today, were occurring frequently during this period. These rains restricted to the western Sahelian coast and followed by the monsoon would have increased the total duration of the rainy season (~ 5 months instead of 3 months today) and substantially increased the annual precipitation-evaporation budget.This study shed light on the high potential of A. senilis as a high resolution paleoclimate archive of rainfall variability in the Sahel region. It shows also the importance of rainfall seasonality in past hydrological cycles that should be taken into account in the future paleoclimate studies.

Experimental mechanical sieving methods are applied to samples of shellfish remains from three sites in southeast Queensland, Seven Mile Creek Mound, Sandstone Point and One-Tree, to test the efficacy of various recovery and quantification procedures commonly applied to shellfish assemblages in Australia. There has been considerable debate regarding the most appropriate sieve sizes and quantification methods that should be applied in the recovery of vertebrate faunal remains. Few studies, however, have addressed the impact of recovery and quantification methods on the interpretation of invertebrates, specifically shellfish remains. In this study, five shellfish taxa representing four bivalves (Anadara trapezia, Trichomya hirsutus, Saccostrea glomerata, Donax deltoides) and one gastropod (Pyrazus ebeninus) common in eastern Australian midden assemblages are sieved through 10mm, 6.3mm and 3.15mm mesh. Results are quantified using MNI, NISP and weight. Analyses indicate that different structural properties and pre- and postdepositional factors affect recovery rates. Fragile taxa (T. hirsutus) or those with foliated structure (S. glomerata) tend to be overrepresented by NISP measures in smaller sieve fractions, while more robust taxa (A. trapezia and P. ebeninus) tend to be overrepresented by weight measures. Results demonstrate that for all quantification methods tested a 3mm sieve should be used on all sites to allow for regional comparability and to effectively collect all available information about the shellfish remains.

Experimental mechanical sieving methods are applied to samples of shellfish remains from three sites in southeast Queensland, Seven Mile Creek Mound, Sandstone Point and One-Tree, to test the efficacy of various recovery and quantification procedures commonly applied to shellfish assemblages in Australia. There has been considerable debate regarding the most appropriate sieve sizes and quantification methods that should be applied in the recovery of vertebrate faunal remains. Few studies, however, have addressed the impact of recovery and quantification methods on the interpretation of invertebrates, specifically shellfish remains. In this study, five shellfish taxa representing four bivalves (Anadara trapezia, Trichomya hirsutus, Saccostrea glomerata, Donax deltoides) and one gastropod (Pyrazus ebeninus) common in eastern Australian midden assemblages are sieved through 10mm, 6.3mm and 3.15mm mesh. Results are quantified using MNI, NISP and weight. Analyses indicate that different structural properties and pre- and postdepositional factors affect recovery rates. Fragile taxa (T. hirsutus) or those with foliated structure (S. glomerata) tend to be overrepresented by NISP measures in smaller sieve fractions, while more robust taxa (A. trapezia and P. ebeninus) tend to be overrepresented by weight measures. Results demonstrate that for all quantification methods tested a 3mm sieve should be used on all sites to allow for regional comparability and to effectively collect all available information about the shellfish remains.

O estudo de oito sambaquis do litoral sul do Estado de Santa Catarina e de um concheiro da Terra do Fogo permitiu entender a dinâmica dos processos de formação de diferentes tipos de concheiros. No caso dos sambaquis catarinenses, o objetivo principal foi compreender os processos de formação culturais(atividades humanas) e naturais (tafonômicos) e suas mudanças ao longo do tempo, a partir da análise estratigráfica de sítios cuja cronologia envolve todo o período de ocupação humana pré-histórica da região (c. 7400-1000 anos AP). No caso fueguino, realizou-se o estudo micro-estratigráfico de um concheiro etno-histórico, para servir como modelo interpretativo na formulação de hipóteses sobre a formação dos concheiros. Os métodos utilizadospara caracterização dos sedimentos arqueológicos incluíram: granulometria, zooarqueologia, isotopia de C e N ( \'? POT.13\'C e \'? POT.15\' N), micromorfologia e microscopia eletrônica de varredura. Utilizou-se também a analogia experimental com fogueiras acesas em diversos contextos conhecidos e queima controlada de moluscos. Três tipos de sambaquis foram analisados: quatro de padrão estratigráfico conchífero; dois de núcleo arenoso; e dois em montículo ictiológico. A formação do primeiro e terceiro tipos seguiu um padrão recorrente e contínuo que envolve retrabalhamento de elementos depositados e queimados em localdiferente do final. Estes elementos incluem resíduos alimentares, como conchas, restos de peixe (ossos e tecidos) e material vegetais (carvões e plantas de ciclo fotossintético \'C IND.3\'), assim como componentes terrígenos relacionados com o substrato sedimentar nos arredores do sambaqui e com sedimentos provenientes dos bancos de moluscos explorados. Os sambaquis de núcleo arenoso representam ocupações efêmeras, mas planejadas. A sua formação envolveu levantamento de montículos de areia e/ou aproveitamento de dunas eólicas, com posterior deposição de moluscos e resíduos de fogueiras. Desta análise, extraem-se duas implicações substanciais: 1) o hábito de retrabalhamento de resíduos pode ter incluído a destruição dos locais de moradia, nunca achados até o momento, associados aos grandes sambaquis; 2) a correspondência entre o processo de formação identificado nos montículos ictiológicos e nos sambaquis conchíferos sugere continuidade na atividade deposicional, apesar da mudança dematéria prima (substituição das conchas por restos de peixe) e da adoção da tecnologia cerâmica em tempos recentes. O concheiro etno-histórico analisado paracomparação geo-etnoarqueológica foi formado a partir de ocupações domésticas, recorrentes durante pelo menos um século. A análise do anel de conchas periférico possibilitou caracterizar micromorfologicamente os episódios de deposição massiva de conchas, pisoteamentoe abandono do sítio. A análise das fogueiras localizadas na área central do concheiro permitiuidentificar estruturas de combustão de temperatura alta e moderada (superior e inferior a 500° C, respectivamente). A comparação das microfácies do concheiro fueguino com as microfácies identificadas nos sambaquis catarinenses mostra diferentes trajetórias pré-deposicionais, relacionadas, no primeiro caso, com a deposição imediata e secundária de detritos de alimentação nos arredores do local de moradia, e, no caso dos sambaquis, com a sucessão intrincada de ações de deposição, queima e transporte, associada à formação de depósitos terciários. Estas observações corroboram a maior complexidade no processo de formação dos sambaquis. / To understand site formation processes in shell sites, eight sambaquis(shell mounds) from the southern coast of Santa Catarina and one shell midden (conchero) from Tierra del Fuego were studied. For the sambaquis of Santa Catarina, the aim was to understand the cultural and natural formation processes (human activities and taphonomy) and the way they changed through time through the whole period of prehistoric human occupation in the region (c. 7400-1000 years BP). In Tierra del Fuego, the micro-stratgraphic study of an ethnohistoric shell midden was done to serve as model for hypothesis on formation processes of shell sites. The methods used for characterization of archaeological sediments included: grain-size analyses, zooarchaeology, C and N isotopy (\'? POT.13\'C e \'? POT.15\' N), micromorphology and scanning electron microscopy. Experimental archaeology was done using different hearths lit on known contexts and by controlled burning of mollusk shell. Three types of sambaquis were analyzed: four shell mounds; two sand mounds; and two fish mounds. Formation of the first and third group followed a recurrent and continuous pattern of reworking of items, accumulated and burnt in a different location than the final. These items included food refuse, like shell, fish remains (bone and tissue) and plant material (charcoal and residues of \'C IND.3\' plants), as well as terrigenous components from the sedimentary substrate of the surroundings of the site and from the exploredshell beds. Sand mounds are ephemeral but planned occupations. Their formation involved rising of a sand mound and/or occupation over sand dunes, with deposition of shells and plant remains on top. Two substantial implications are extracted from this analyses: 1) the reworking of food residues may be destructing the remains of daily occupations associated with the large sambaquis, that have never been found to this moment; 2) the correspondence of formation process in shell mounds and fish mounds suggests continuity in the depositional activities, besides the change in material (substitution of shell by fish remains) and adoption of ceramic technology in recent times. The ethnohistorical site analyzed for geo-ethnoarchaeological comparison was formed by recurrent domestic occupations that lasted for a century. Analyses of the peripheral shell ring allowed the micromorphological characterization of episodes of massive shell deposition, trampling and site abandonment. Analyses of hearths located in the central habitation area showed micromorphological indicators of high temperature and moderate temperature combustion structures (over and under 500° C, respectivley). Comparison of microfacies from the fueguian shell midden and microfacies from the sambaquis shows different pre-depositional trajectories. In the first case, deposition is related with the immediate and secondary discard of food refuse around the living space. In the second case, formation is related with an intricate succession of deposition, burning and transport of items that resulted in a tertiary deposit. These observations corroborate the great complexity in the formation processes of sambaquis.

Em meio aos manguezais de Cananéia (extremo sul do litoral de SP), foram identificados, no âmbito do Programa Arqueológico do Baixo Vale do Ribeira, oito sambaquis que apresentam vestígios arqueológicos submersos. Com o objetivo de compreender a ocorrência desses sambaquis e de contextualizá-los espaço-temporalmente em meio às flutuações holocênicas do nível do mar, esta dissertação fundamentou-se em uma adaptação da técnica do Vibracoring, em métodos e técnicas da Arqueologia Subaquática, na abordagem geoarqueológica proposta por Waters (1992) e no estudo dos Processos de Formação adotados por Stein (1992). Dessa maneira, o presente trabalho pode identificar que o potencial de preservação e a distribuição dos sambaquis nessa região apresentam uma forte correlação com as oscilações do Nível Relativo do Mar, que ocorreram após o último máximo regressivo holocênico. Essas evidências indicaram também, que além de existirem chances reais de sambaquis totalmente submersos terem se preservado, nem sempre sítios relativos a um antigo nível marinho acabaram sendo destruídos ou ficando submersos. Em alguns casos, sambaquis que deveriam ter sido destruídos ou estarem submersos, encontram-se em terra, recobertos por sedimentos costeiros mais recentes ou protegidas por alguma formação geológica. Além de sua contribuição para o desenvolvimento e amadurecimento de uma Arqueologia Subaquática científica e para o estudo das curvas de Variação do Nível Relativo do Mar, esta pesquisa identificou algumas evidências importantes para a compreensão do fenômeno dos sambaquis, como por exemplo, a ocorrência de seqüências estratigráficas que atribuem diferenças funcionais e uma intencionalidade à construção de alguns sítios, assim como, datações que remetem a ocupação sambaquieira de Cananéia a uma antiguidade de quase 8.000 anos. / Among the Cananéia mangrove swamp (extreme south of São Paulo’s coastline), it was identified within the Archeological Programme of the Lower Ribeira Valley, eight shell middens within which could be found archeological submerged traces. Aiming at the understanding of these shell middens occurrence and the contextualisation in space and time in relation to the holocenic variations of the sea level, this monograph was based on an adaptation of the Vibracoring technique, underwater archeological methods and techniques, on the geoarcheological interpretation of Waters (1992), and on the studies of Formation Process adopted by Stein (1992). Thus, the shell middens preserving potential and distribution in this area shows a strong correlation with the sea related level changes, that occurred after the last holocenic regressive maximum. These evidences also indicated that not only were there real chances that completely submerged shell midden were preserved but also that it is not always that sites related to an ancient sea level ended up into being destroyed or kept submerged. In some cases, some that should have been destroyed or kept submerged, are seen in land covered by recent coast sediments or protected by any geological feature. Besides contributing to the development and maturation of the scientific underwater archeology and for the studies of the curves of the sea related level changes the research also identified some important evidences to the understanding of the shell middens phenomenon such as the occurrence of stratigraphic sequences that attach functional differences and an intention in building some sites, such as the one dated back to almost 8.000 years ago when Cananéia was first inhabited by the people of the shell middens

O estudo de oito sambaquis do litoral sul do Estado de Santa Catarina e de um concheiro da Terra do Fogo permitiu entender a dinâmica dos processos de formação de diferentes tipos de concheiros. No caso dos sambaquis catarinenses, o objetivo principal foi compreender os processos de formação culturais(atividades humanas) e naturais (tafonômicos) e suas mudanças ao longo do tempo, a partir da análise estratigráfica de sítios cuja cronologia envolve todo o período de ocupação humana pré-histórica da região (c. 7400-1000 anos AP). No caso fueguino, realizou-se o estudo micro-estratigráfico de um concheiro etno-histórico, para servir como modelo interpretativo na formulação de hipóteses sobre a formação dos concheiros. Os métodos utilizadospara caracterização dos sedimentos arqueológicos incluíram: granulometria, zooarqueologia, isotopia de C e N ( \'? POT.13\'C e \'? POT.15\' N), micromorfologia e microscopia eletrônica de varredura. Utilizou-se também a analogia experimental com fogueiras acesas em diversos contextos conhecidos e queima controlada de moluscos. Três tipos de sambaquis foram analisados: quatro de padrão estratigráfico conchífero; dois de núcleo arenoso; e dois em montículo ictiológico. A formação do primeiro e terceiro tipos seguiu um padrão recorrente e contínuo que envolve retrabalhamento de elementos depositados e queimados em localdiferente do final. Estes elementos incluem resíduos alimentares, como conchas, restos de peixe (ossos e tecidos) e material vegetais (carvões e plantas de ciclo fotossintético \'C IND.3\'), assim como componentes terrígenos relacionados com o substrato sedimentar nos arredores do sambaqui e com sedimentos provenientes dos bancos de moluscos explorados. Os sambaquis de núcleo arenoso representam ocupações efêmeras, mas planejadas. A sua formação envolveu levantamento de montículos de areia e/ou aproveitamento de dunas eólicas, com posterior deposição de moluscos e resíduos de fogueiras. Desta análise, extraem-se duas implicações substanciais: 1) o hábito de retrabalhamento de resíduos pode ter incluído a destruição dos locais de moradia, nunca achados até o momento, associados aos grandes sambaquis; 2) a correspondência entre o processo de formação identificado nos montículos ictiológicos e nos sambaquis conchíferos sugere continuidade na atividade deposicional, apesar da mudança dematéria prima (substituição das conchas por restos de peixe) e da adoção da tecnologia cerâmica em tempos recentes. O concheiro etno-histórico analisado paracomparação geo-etnoarqueológica foi formado a partir de ocupações domésticas, recorrentes durante pelo menos um século. A análise do anel de conchas periférico possibilitou caracterizar micromorfologicamente os episódios de deposição massiva de conchas, pisoteamentoe abandono do sítio. A análise das fogueiras localizadas na área central do concheiro permitiuidentificar estruturas de combustão de temperatura alta e moderada (superior e inferior a 500° C, respectivamente). A comparação das microfácies do concheiro fueguino com as microfácies identificadas nos sambaquis catarinenses mostra diferentes trajetórias pré-deposicionais, relacionadas, no primeiro caso, com a deposição imediata e secundária de detritos de alimentação nos arredores do local de moradia, e, no caso dos sambaquis, com a sucessão intrincada de ações de deposição, queima e transporte, associada à formação de depósitos terciários. Estas observações corroboram a maior complexidade no processo de formação dos sambaquis. / To understand site formation processes in shell sites, eight sambaquis(shell mounds) from the southern coast of Santa Catarina and one shell midden (conchero) from Tierra del Fuego were studied. For the sambaquis of Santa Catarina, the aim was to understand the cultural and natural formation processes (human activities and taphonomy) and the way they changed through time through the whole period of prehistoric human occupation in the region (c. 7400-1000 years BP). In Tierra del Fuego, the micro-stratgraphic study of an ethnohistoric shell midden was done to serve as model for hypothesis on formation processes of shell sites. The methods used for characterization of archaeological sediments included: grain-size analyses, zooarchaeology, C and N isotopy (\'? POT.13\'C e \'? POT.15\' N), micromorphology and scanning electron microscopy. Experimental archaeology was done using different hearths lit on known contexts and by controlled burning of mollusk shell. Three types of sambaquis were analyzed: four shell mounds; two sand mounds; and two fish mounds. Formation of the first and third group followed a recurrent and continuous pattern of reworking of items, accumulated and burnt in a different location than the final. These items included food refuse, like shell, fish remains (bone and tissue) and plant material (charcoal and residues of \'C IND.3\' plants), as well as terrigenous components from the sedimentary substrate of the surroundings of the site and from the exploredshell beds. Sand mounds are ephemeral but planned occupations. Their formation involved rising of a sand mound and/or occupation over sand dunes, with deposition of shells and plant remains on top. Two substantial implications are extracted from this analyses: 1) the reworking of food residues may be destructing the remains of daily occupations associated with the large sambaquis, that have never been found to this moment; 2) the correspondence of formation process in shell mounds and fish mounds suggests continuity in the depositional activities, besides the change in material (substitution of shell by fish remains) and adoption of ceramic technology in recent times. The ethnohistorical site analyzed for geo-ethnoarchaeological comparison was formed by recurrent domestic occupations that lasted for a century. Analyses of the peripheral shell ring allowed the micromorphological characterization of episodes of massive shell deposition, trampling and site abandonment. Analyses of hearths located in the central habitation area showed micromorphological indicators of high temperature and moderate temperature combustion structures (over and under 500° C, respectivley). Comparison of microfacies from the fueguian shell midden and microfacies from the sambaquis shows different pre-depositional trajectories. In the first case, deposition is related with the immediate and secondary discard of food refuse around the living space. In the second case, formation is related with an intricate succession of deposition, burning and transport of items that resulted in a tertiary deposit. These observations corroborate the great complexity in the formation processes of sambaquis.

Em meio aos manguezais de Cananéia (extremo sul do litoral de SP), foram identificados, no âmbito do Programa Arqueológico do Baixo Vale do Ribeira, oito sambaquis que apresentam vestígios arqueológicos submersos. Com o objetivo de compreender a ocorrência desses sambaquis e de contextualizá-los espaço-temporalmente em meio às flutuações holocênicas do nível do mar, esta dissertação fundamentou-se em uma adaptação da técnica do Vibracoring, em métodos e técnicas da Arqueologia Subaquática, na abordagem geoarqueológica proposta por Waters (1992) e no estudo dos Processos de Formação adotados por Stein (1992). Dessa maneira, o presente trabalho pode identificar que o potencial de preservação e a distribuição dos sambaquis nessa região apresentam uma forte correlação com as oscilações do Nível Relativo do Mar, que ocorreram após o último máximo regressivo holocênico. Essas evidências indicaram também, que além de existirem chances reais de sambaquis totalmente submersos terem se preservado, nem sempre sítios relativos a um antigo nível marinho acabaram sendo destruídos ou ficando submersos. Em alguns casos, sambaquis que deveriam ter sido destruídos ou estarem submersos, encontram-se em terra, recobertos por sedimentos costeiros mais recentes ou protegidas por alguma formação geológica. Além de sua contribuição para o desenvolvimento e amadurecimento de uma Arqueologia Subaquática científica e para o estudo das curvas de Variação do Nível Relativo do Mar, esta pesquisa identificou algumas evidências importantes para a compreensão do fenômeno dos sambaquis, como por exemplo, a ocorrência de seqüências estratigráficas que atribuem diferenças funcionais e uma intencionalidade à construção de alguns sítios, assim como, datações que remetem a ocupação sambaquieira de Cananéia a uma antiguidade de quase 8.000 anos. / Among the Cananéia mangrove swamp (extreme south of São Paulo’s coastline), it was identified within the Archeological Programme of the Lower Ribeira Valley, eight shell middens within which could be found archeological submerged traces. Aiming at the understanding of these shell middens occurrence and the contextualisation in space and time in relation to the holocenic variations of the sea level, this monograph was based on an adaptation of the Vibracoring technique, underwater archeological methods and techniques, on the geoarcheological interpretation of Waters (1992), and on the studies of Formation Process adopted by Stein (1992). Thus, the shell middens preserving potential and distribution in this area shows a strong correlation with the sea related level changes, that occurred after the last holocenic regressive maximum. These evidences also indicated that not only were there real chances that completely submerged shell midden were preserved but also that it is not always that sites related to an ancient sea level ended up into being destroyed or kept submerged. In some cases, some that should have been destroyed or kept submerged, are seen in land covered by recent coast sediments or protected by any geological feature. Besides contributing to the development and maturation of the scientific underwater archeology and for the studies of the curves of the sea related level changes the research also identified some important evidences to the understanding of the shell middens phenomenon such as the occurrence of stratigraphic sequences that attach functional differences and an intention in building some sites, such as the one dated back to almost 8.000 years ago when Cananéia was first inhabited by the people of the shell middens

The history of death is entangled with the history of changing social values, meaning that a shift in attitudes to death will be consistent with changes in a society’s world view. Late Mesolithic shell middens in the Tagus and Sado valleys, Portugal, constitute some of the largest and earliest burial grounds known, arranged and maintained by people with a hunting, fishing, and foraging lifestyle, c 6000–5000 cal BCE. These sites have been interpreted in the light of economic and environmental processes as territorial claims to establish control over limited resources. This approach does not explain the significance of the frequent disposal of the dead in neighbouring burial grounds, and how these places were meaningful and socially recognized. The aim of this dissertation is to answer these questions through the detailed analysis of museum collections of human burials from these sites, excavated between the late nineteenth century and the 1960s. I examine the burial activity of the last hunter-gatherers of the south-western Iberian Peninsula from an archaeological perspective, and explain the burial phenomenon through the lens of historical and humanist approaches to death and hunter-gatherers, on the basis of theoretical concepts of social memory, place, mortuary ritual practice, and historical processes. Human burials are investigated in terms of time and practice based on the application of three methods: radiocarbon dating and Bayesian analysis to define the chronological framework of the burial activity at each site and valley; stable isotope analysis of carbon and nitrogen aimed at defining the burial populations by the identification of dietary choices; and archaeothanatology to reconstruct and define central practices in the treatment of the dead. This dissertation provides new perspectives on the role and relevance of the shell middens in the Tagus and Sado valleys. Hunter-gatherers frequenting these sites were bound by shared social practices, which included the formation and maintenance of burial grounds, as a primary means of history making. Death rituals played a central role in the life of these hunter-gatherers in developing a sense of community, as well as maintaining social ties in both life and death.