The concept for a novel new antenna design is presented and investigated for application to ground penetrating radar (GPR). The proposed new antenna design is called the shielded magnetic bowtie antenna (MBA). As the name suggests, it is predominately constructed from a bowtie-shaped volume of magnetic material that is fed from the centre of the structure by a small magnetic loop antenna. This thesis develops the magnetic antenna concept and investigates its potential for GPR predominately through numerical modelling. However, a significant part of the investigation concentrates on validating the numerical modelling technique developed to study the shielded MBA by comparing the results with measurements obtained from a scale model constructed to operate in the watertank antenna test facility, a controlled environment for GPR antenna research. The broadband properties required for GPR antennas are achieved uniquely with the shielded MBA design by a combination of the antenna shape being defined in terms of angles and an inherent magnetic loss mechanism within the antenna material structure. The design also affords an intrinsically placed antenna shield that has the potential for mitigating problems typically experienced with shielding electric dipole antennas. Antenna shielding is an important consideration for GPR antenna designers, especially given the recent US government (FCC) changes that restrict radiated energy emissions within the regulated spectrum used by GPR systems. In addition to providing the intended directional radiation properties, the magnetic antenna shield also provides an elegant solution for a low-loss wideband balun, allowing the antenna to be effectively fed from an unbalanced coaxial transmission line. Other important aspects of the proposed design are discussed in relation to the requirements for GPR antennas. Numerical models of the magnetic antenna concept show encouraging bandwidth results. For example, from a simple comparison with an equivalent sized electric bowtie antenna model, the effective gain bandwidth of the magnetic antenna is found to be at least 3-octaves compared to approximately 2-octaves for the electric bowtie. The shielded magnetic antenna achieves a gain of approximately 2 dB, compared to 5 dB for the unshielded electric bowtie antenna. However, it is noted that the magnetic antenna models contain significantly more loss compared to the electric bowtie model. The shielded MBA design emerged from a theoretical investigation of electrically small GPR antennas, given that the initial thesis objective was to investigate ways of improving low frequency GPR antennas. In general, GPR systems are operated with electric dipole antennas, such as the electric bowtie. Interestingly, the electrically small antenna investigation revealed that only the small magnetic loop (i.e., magnetic dipole) antenna can be constructed to approach, arbitrarily closely, the fundamental bandwidth limit for small antennas. This surprising and counter intuitive result is shown to be theoretically achievable with the use of magnetic materials. For the small loop antenna, energy stored within the antenna structure can be avoided by filling the antenna sphere with a perfect magnetic material. This theoretical argument is discussed and supported by numerically modelled results. The electrically small antenna investigation presented in this thesis extends to include the influence that proximity to a lossy dielectric half-space has, on improving the antenna impedance bandwidth. This investigation is of general interest for GPR; it is performed numerically and supported by measurements conducted on an experimental loop antenna situated at various heights above the ground. These results provide support for the hypothesis that a magnetic antenna may experience less influence from near-field changes in the dielectric properties of the ground compared to the equivalent sized electric field antenna.

Society’s dependence on electronic and electrical systems has increased rapidly over the past few decades, and people are relying more and more on these gadgets in their daily life because of the efficiency in operation which these systems can offer. This has revolutionized many areas of electrical and electronics engineering including power sector, telecommunication sector, transportation and many other allied areas. With progress in time, the sophistication in the systems also increased. Also as the systems size reduced from micro level to nano level, the compactness of the systems increased. This paved the way for development in the digital electronics leading to new and efficient IC 0s that came into existence. Power sector also faced a resurge in its technology. Most of the analog meters are now replaced by digital meters. The increased sophistication and compactness in the digital system technology made it susceptible to electromagnetic interference especially from High Power Electromagnetic Sources. Communication, data processing, sensors, and similar electronic devices are vital parts of the modern technological environment. Damage or failures in these devices could lead to technical or financial disasters as well as injuries or the loss of life. Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) can be explained as any malicious generation of electromagnetic energy introducing noise or signals into electric and electronic systems, thus disrupting, confusing or damaging these systems. The disturbance may interrupt, obstruct, or otherwise degrade or limit the effective performance of the circuit. These effects can range from a simple degradation of data to a total loss of data. The source may be any object, artificial or natural, that carries rapidly changing electrical currents, such as an electrical circuit. The sources of electromagnetic interference can be either unintentional or intentional. The sources producing electromagnetic interference can be of different power levels, different frequency of operation and of different field strength. One such classification of these sources are the High Power Electromagnetic Sources (HPEM) High Power Electromagnetic environment refers to sources producing very high peak electromagnetic fields at very high power levels. These power levels coupled with the extremely high magnitude of the fields are sufficient to cause disastrous effects on the electrical and electronic systems. There has been a lot of developments in the field of the source technology of HPEM sources so that they are now one of the strongest sources of electromagnetic interference. High Power Electromagnetic environment refers to the sources producing very high peak electromagnetic fields at very high power levels. These power levels coupled with the extremely high magnitude of the fields are sufficient to cause disastrous effects on the electrical and electronic systems. HPEM environments are categorized based on the source characteristics such as the peak electric field, often called threat level, frequency coverage or bandwidth, average power density and energy content. The sources of electromagnetic interference can be either unintentional or intentional. Some examples of unintentional sources are the increased use of electromagnetic spectrum which generates disturbance to various systems operating in that frequency band, poor design of systems without taking care of other systems present nearby as well as lightning. Intentional sources are High altitude Electromagnetic Pulse (HEMP) or Nuclear Electromagnetic Pulse (NEMP) due to nuclear detonations, Ultra Wide Band (UWB) field from Impulse Radiating Antennas (IRA), Nar-row band fields like those coming from High Power Microwaves (HPM), High Intensity Radio Frequency (HIRF) sources. Of these the lightning is natural and all other sources are man-made. The significant progress in the Intentional High-Power Electromagnetic (HPEM) sources and antenna technologies and the easy access to simple HPEM systems for anyone entail the need to determine the susceptibility of electronic equipment as well as coupling of these fields with systems such as cables (buried as well as aerial), airborne vehicle etc. to these types of threats. Buried cables are widely used in the communication and power sectors due to their efficient functioning in urban cities and towns. These cables are more prone to electromagnetic interferences from HPEM sources. The buried communication cables or even the buried data cables are connected to sensitive equipments and hence even a slight rise in the voltage or the current at the terminals of the equipments can become a serious problem for the smooth operation of the system. In the first part of the thesis the effect of the electromagnetic field due to these sources on the cables laid underground has been studied. The second part of this thesis deals with the study of the interaction of the EM field from the above mentioned HPEM sources with an airborne vehicle. Airborne vehicle and its payload are extremely expensive so that any destruction to these as a result of the voltages and currents induced on the vehicle on account of the incoming HPEM fields can be quite undesirable. The incoming electromagnetic fields will illuminate the vehicle along its axis which results in the induction of currents and voltages. These currents and voltages will get coupled to the internal control circuits that are extremely sensitive. If the induced voltage/ current magnitude happen to be above the damage threshold level of these circuits then it will result in either a malfunction of the circuit or a permanent damage of it, with both of them being detrimental to the success of the mission. This will even result in the abortion of the mission or possible degradation of the vehicle performance. Hence it is worthwhile to see what will be the influence of an incoming HPEM electromagnetic field on the airborne vehicle with and without the presence of an exhaust plume. In this work, the HPEM sources considered are NEMP, IRA and HPM. The electromagnetic fields produced by the EMP can induce large voltage and current transients in electrical and electronic circuits which can lead to a possible malfunction or permanent damage of the systems. The electric field at the earth 0s surface can be modelled as a double exponential pulse as per the IEC standard 61000-2-9. The NEMP field incident on the earth’s surface is considered as that coming from a source at a distance far away from the earth’s surface; hence a plane wave approximation has been used. Impulse radiating antennas are the ones that are used as the major source of ultra wide band radiation. These are highly powerful antennas that use a pulsed power source as the input and this power source is conditioned to get an extremely sharp rise time pulse. These antennas are very high power antennas that are capable of producing a significant electromagnetic field. Impulse radiating antenna is a paraboloidal reflector and hence is an aperture antenna. Initially the radiated field due to this aperture needs to be found out at any observation point from the antenna. In this thesis, the aperture distribution method is used to accurately determine the field due to the aperture. In this method the field reflected from the surface of the reflector is first found on an imaginary plane through the focal point of the reflector that is normal to the axis of the reflector, by using the principles of geometrical optics, which then is extended to the observation point. The IRA considered for the present work is the one of the most powerful IRA as per the published literature available in the open domain. This has an input voltage of 1.025 MV. The far field electric field measured at the boresight (at r =85 m) being equal to 62 kV/m, and the uncorrected pulse rise time (10%-90%) is 180 ps for this IRA. HPM sources are usually electromagnetic radiators having a reflector with a horn antenna kept at their focal point for excitation. HPM sources generally operate in single mode or at tens or hundreds of Hz repetition rates. Many HPM radiators are developed in the world each with their own peculiar geometry and power levels. In the present thesis, a single waveguide (WR-975) fed HPM antenna assembly has been studied. The chosen waveguide has a cut-o_ frequency of 1 GHz and a power level of 10 GW. The wavelength associated with the waveguide is 0.3 m. The field pattern shows a definite peak in its response when the frequency is 1 GHz, the cut-off frequency of the waveguide. The electric field coming out of the HPEM sources travel through the medium that is either air alone or a combination of air and soil respectively depending upon whether the circuit on which the coupling is analysed is an airborne vehicle or an underground cable. The media plays a major role in the coupling, as the field magnitude is influenced by the characteristic properties of the media. As height increases the magnitude of the electric field decreases for all types of sources and also the time before which the field waveform starts is increased. The electric field in the soil is decided by the soil properties such as its conductivity and permittivity. The soil is modelled in frequency domain and the high frequency behaviour of soils is considered with its conductivity and permittivity taken as functions of frequency, as the incident field has high frequency components. A soil medium can be electromagnetically viewed as a four component dielectric mixture consisting of soil particles, air voids, bound water, and free water. When electric field is incident on the soil, it gets polarized. This is as a result of a wide variety of processes, including polarization of electrons in the orbits around atoms, distortion of molecules, reorientation of water molecules, accumulation of charge at interfaces, and electrochemical reactions. Whatever is the HPEM source, an increase in the soil conductivity results in an increased attenuation of the field. Also there is a significant loss of high frequency components in the GHz range in the field due to the selective absorption by the soil. This effect causes the percentage attenuation to be maximum for HPM and minimum for NEMP and IRA lying in between these two extremities. Increase in permittivity of the soil causes attenuation of the electric field for all HPEM sources. This is due to the relaxation mechanisms in the soil due to atomic- or molecular-scale resonances. The coupling of the electromagnetic fields due to HPEM sources is considered in the first phase. Two cables are considered (i) buried shielded and (ii) buried shielded twisted pair cables. The results are arrived at using the Enhanced Transmission Line model. The induced current is more for a shielded cable than a twisted pair cable of the same configuration. The induced current magnitude depends upon the type of the HPEM source, the depth of burial of the cable and the point on the cable where the current/ voltage is computed. Current is maximum at the centre of the cable for a matched termination and the voltage is the minimum at this point. The ratio of the induced current in the inner conductor with respect to the shield current of a shielded cable is the least for an HPM, and maximum for NEMP. This is due to the fact that higher frequencies are absorbed more by the shield of the cable. This affects HPM induced current the maximum and NEMP the least because of the presence of the lower frequency components in NEMP. Induced current in the twisted pair cable depends upon the number of pairs of the cable and the pitching of the cable. The electromagnetic field from the HPEM sources propagates with less attenuation in air due to the lower resistance this medium offers for electromagnetic wave propagation. Hence any system in air, be it electrical or electronic, will be under the strong illumination by these electromagnetic fields. As the second part of this thesis, the influence of the electromagnetic fields from all the three HPEM sources on an airborne vehicle in flight is analysed. For this part of study, the Electromagnetic (EM) fields radiated by all the three sources at different heights from the earth 0s surface have been computed. The coupling study has been done for the case of a vehicle with plume as well as without plume. For the second case, the electromagnetic modelling of the plume has been done taking into consideration its conductivity, which in turn depends on the different ionic species present in the plume. The species of the exhaust plume depends upon the chemical reactions taking place in the combustion chamber of the nozzle of the vehicle. The presence of the alkali metals as impurity in the airborne vehicle propellant will generate considerable ion particles such as Na+, Cl in addition to e- in the plume mixture during combustion which makes the plume electrically conducting. But it does not influence the pressure, temperature and velocity of the plume. After the nozzle throat, the exhaust plume regains the supersonic speed, so the flow of the exhaust plume is assumed as compressible flow in the second region. The electrons have high collision frequency, high number density, high plasma frequency and lower molecular mass and hence the highly mobile electrons dominate the heavy ion particle in the computation of the electrical conductivity of the plume. The plume conductivity decreases marginally from the axis till a distance equal to the nozzle radius but the peak value increases sharply towards the exit plane edge of the nozzle radius. The induced current is computed using Method of Moments. The induced current depends upon the type of interference source, its characteristics, whether the plume is present or not and the type of the plume. The HPM induces maximum current in the vehicle because of the fact that the plume has a tendency to become more conductive at these frequencies. The induced currents due to the EM fields from IRA and NEMP comes after the HPM. The presence of the plume enhances the magnitude of the induced current. If the plume is homogeneous then the current induced in it is more.

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In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde die Energiebilanz von der Schweißenergiequelle bis zur Schmelzebildung im Bauteil eingehend analysiert. Hierfür wurden geeignete Messsysteme auf Basis der Kalorimetrie entwickelt und validiert. Neben dem Energieverbrauch der Anlage wird der Wärmeeintrag in das Bauteil kalorimetrisch analysiert. Zur umfassenden Analyse des Energieflusses werden zudem die Verlustgrößen, wie die Wärmeleitung, Wärmestrahlung und der Wärmedurchgang des Lichtbogens als auch der externe Brennerkühlkreislauf der Schweißenergiequelle untersucht. Neueste Untersuchungsmethoden ermöglichen zudem die Tropfentemperatur und die Lichtbogenleistung zu bestimmen. In Abhängigkeit definiert gewählter Prozessparameter wurde der Energiefluss für Schutzgasschweißverfahren mit abschmelzender und nicht abschmelzender Elektrode, sowie für das Unterpulverschweißen erstellt. Die einzelnen Wirkmechanismen der Prozesse wurden analysiert und bewertet sowie Zusammenhänge herausgestellt. Neben der Empfehlung für die Überarbeitung gültiger Normen, wie DIN EN 1011-1 kann mit der Kenntnis das Fügen temperatursensibler Werkstoffe verbessert werden. Gleichzeitig wird die Genauigkeit von Prozess- und Werkstoffsimulationen erhöht und Berechnung von Bauteildeformationen vereinfacht. Es wurden mittlere Tropfentemperaturen in einem Bereich zwischen TTr = 2.350…2.700°C ermittelt. Die Untersuchungen zeigen zudem, dass eine ausschließlich gezielte Änderung der Tropfentemperatur im Schweißprozess nicht möglich ist. Weiterhin konnte nachgewiesen werden, dass der Lichtbogen und dessen Intensität den entscheidenden Einfluss auf die Entstehung des Einbandes in den Grundwerkstoff besitzt. / Welding performance is not the same as the energy input in the component. The efficiency is the ratio of usable to required energy. The aim of any process is to achieve a high efficiency, and thus to keep the share of losses as small as possible. Recent process developments in arc welding with consumable electrode have the aim to regulate the energy input in the component to achieve the target of an optimum welding result. This is based on a fundamental understanding of the operations during the welding process. For this purpose, the knowledge of the individual operations of the energy transport from the electrode contact to the heating behaviour of the component is necessary. Different measurement methods and results for the separate determination of the energy content of droplet and welding arc as well as energy input into the component are presented. For instance the question is analysed and discussed - whether the arc, or the overheated droplet is responsible for the weld penetration? In addition, the situation between relative and absolute efficiency of the welding process is discussed. In welding standards often global efficiencies for different welding processes are indicated. These standards provide this efficiency in relation to the as 100 % set submerged arc welding. This leads to errors in the use of the values for calculations or simulations. With the methods presented a sophisticated analysis of the influence of different parameter settings of the shielding gas welding process on the energy efficiency is possible.

In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde die Energiebilanz von der Schweißenergiequelle bis zur Schmelzebildung im Bauteil eingehend analysiert. Hierfür wurden geeignete Messsysteme auf Basis der Kalorimetrie entwickelt und validiert. Neben dem Energieverbrauch der Anlage wird der Wärmeeintrag in das Bauteil kalorimetrisch analysiert. Zur umfassenden Analyse des Energieflusses werden zudem die Verlustgrößen, wie die Wärmeleitung, Wärmestrahlung und der Wärmedurchgang des Lichtbogens als auch der externe Brennerkühlkreislauf der Schweißenergiequelle untersucht. Neueste Untersuchungsmethoden ermöglichen zudem die Tropfentemperatur und die Lichtbogenleistung zu bestimmen. In Abhängigkeit definiert gewählter Prozessparameter wurde der Energiefluss für Schutzgasschweißverfahren mit abschmelzender und nicht abschmelzender Elektrode, sowie für das Unterpulverschweißen erstellt. Die einzelnen Wirkmechanismen der Prozesse wurden analysiert und bewertet sowie Zusammenhänge herausgestellt. Neben der Empfehlung für die Überarbeitung gültiger Normen, wie DIN EN 1011-1 kann mit der Kenntnis das Fügen temperatursensibler Werkstoffe verbessert werden. Gleichzeitig wird die Genauigkeit von Prozess- und Werkstoffsimulationen erhöht und Berechnung von Bauteildeformationen vereinfacht. Es wurden mittlere Tropfentemperaturen in einem Bereich zwischen TTr = 2.350…2.700°C ermittelt. Die Untersuchungen zeigen zudem, dass eine ausschließlich gezielte Änderung der Tropfentemperatur im Schweißprozess nicht möglich ist. Weiterhin konnte nachgewiesen werden, dass der Lichtbogen und dessen Intensität den entscheidenden Einfluss auf die Entstehung des Einbandes in den Grundwerkstoff besitzt. / Welding performance is not the same as the energy input in the component. The efficiency is the ratio of usable to required energy. The aim of any process is to achieve a high efficiency, and thus to keep the share of losses as small as possible. Recent process developments in arc welding with consumable electrode have the aim to regulate the energy input in the component to achieve the target of an optimum welding result. This is based on a fundamental understanding of the operations during the welding process. For this purpose, the knowledge of the individual operations of the energy transport from the electrode contact to the heating behaviour of the component is necessary. Different measurement methods and results for the separate determination of the energy content of droplet and welding arc as well as energy input into the component are presented. For instance the question is analysed and discussed - whether the arc, or the overheated droplet is responsible for the weld penetration? In addition, the situation between relative and absolute efficiency of the welding process is discussed. In welding standards often global efficiencies for different welding processes are indicated. These standards provide this efficiency in relation to the as 100 % set submerged arc welding. This leads to errors in the use of the values for calculations or simulations. With the methods presented a sophisticated analysis of the influence of different parameter settings of the shielding gas welding process on the energy efficiency is possible.