Examensarbetet i den här rapporten kommer att handla om hur ett beredningsarbete mellan Myren-Torseröd i Tanums kommun går till väga. På uppdrag av Ellevio AB skall berednings och entreprenadföretaget Trolk EL & Tele AB vädersäkra ett område mellan Galtö-Torseröd i Tanums kommun. Denna rapport kommer dock bara innehålla distributionsnätet 0,4-24 kV i området Myren-Torseröd. Det befintliga luftledningsnätet skall raseras och ersättas med markkabel. Även befintliga nätstationer och stolpstationer skall skrotas och ersättas med nya. Under beredningsarbetet skall fältbesök göras för att få en överblick i området beredningen skall ske, även för att mäta ut placering av t.ex. nätstationer. Beredningsarbetaren skall skriva avtal med markägare för att ha tillgång till marken, sedan skall även tillstånd sökas från t.ex. Länsstyrelsen, trafikverket och kommunen. Hela beredningsarbetet i detta projekt omfattar 68 kunder. / This report will focused on how the preparatory work between Myren-Torseröd in Tanum will proceed. On behalf of Ellevio AB, the preparation and construction company Trolk EL & Tele AB shall weatherproof an area between Galtö-Torseröd in Tanum. This report will only include the distribution 0,4-24 kV in the area between Myren-Torseröd. The existing overhead line network will be dismantled and replaced with underground cables. Even existing substations and pole stations to be scrapped and replaced with new ones. During the preparatory work, there have been field visits to get an overview of the field of processing operations, and to measure the position of e.g. substations. To have access to the ground the preparation worker must sign contracts with landowners, and shall also seek authorization from the County Administrative Board, the transport department and municipality. The entire preparation work in this project includes 68 customers.

This thesis presents a method to obtain the per-unit-length electrical parameters of a given overhead transmission line or underground cable in an unbounded space considering the effect of the ground. This is achieved using a two-dimensional conformal mapping technique, which consists of a modified bilinear transformation to map a semi-open half-space problem into a unit circle. The Helmholtz equations describing the quasi-stationary approximation for the electromagnetic field behaviour are solved using finite element method, with the aid of commonly used commercial software program, COMSOL Multiphysics. The per-unit-length resistance, inductance and capacitance are calculated using the proposed mapping method, the truncation of the original space method and then compared with the analytical solution obtained from Carson's approximation for the overhead lines and Wedepohl's formulation for the underground cables. / October 2016

Σκοπός της παρούσας διπλωματικής εργασίας είναι η μελέτη της συμπεριφοράς εναέριων γραμμών και υπόγειων καλωδίων μεταφοράς υψηλής τάσης έναντι κεραυνών. Για την εξυπηρέτηση του σκοπού αυτού, γίνεται προσομοίωση ενός υβριδικού δικτύου, αποτελούμενου τόσο από εναέριες γραμμές μεταφοράς όσο και από υπόγεια καλώδια, και μελέτη των μεταβατικών υπερτάσεων που εμφανίζονται σε αυτό λόγω κεραυνικών πληγμάτων σε έναν από τους αγωγούς προστασίας του τερματικού πυλώνα, όπου πραγματοποιείται η διασύνδεση εναέριας γραμμής-υπόγειου καλωδίου. Στο πρώτο κεφάλαιο παρατίθενται κάποια θεωρητικά στοιχεία σχετικά με τις ατμοσφαιρικές υπερτάσεις. Αναλύονται τα είδη των κεραυνών, οι βασικές παράμετροι και τα κύρια χαρακτηριστικά τους. Επιπλέον, περιγράφονται οι επιπτώσεις από κεραυνικά πλήγματα και ο τρόπος εύρεσης της συχνότητας με την οποία συμβαίνουν κεραυνοί ανά περιοχή. Στο δεύτερο κεφάλαιο γίνεται μία εισαγωγή στα Συστήματα Ηλεκτρικής Ενέργειας και αναπτύσσονται τα βασικά στοιχεία των εναέριων γραμμών και των υπόγειων καλωδίων μεταφοράς ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας. Επίσης, πραγματοποιείται μία σύγκριση αυτών των δύο τρόπων μεταφοράς ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας, παρουσιάζοντας τα θετικά και αρνητικά στοιχεία καθενός από αυτούς. Στο τρίτο κεφάλαιο εξετάζονται τα είδη σφαλμάτων και τα αίτια δημιουργίας αυτών στις γραμμές μεταφοράς ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας. Επιπλέον, δίνονται κάποια βασικά χαρακτηριστικά για την κυματομορφή του κεραυνικού ρεύματος. Στο τέταρτο κεφάλαιο αναλύεται η μόνωση και η προστασία τόσο των εναέριων γραμμών όσο και των υπόγειων καλωδίων έναντι κεραυνικών πληγμάτων. Εξετάζονται ακόμα οι μηχανισμοί που εγείρουν υπερτάσεις στη γραμμή μεταφοράς. Έπειτα, για τον καθορισμό της θέσης των αγωγών προστασίας της γραμμής, περιγράφονται οι μέθοδοι της μέγιστης γωνίας αλλά και η ηλεκτρογεωμετρική μέθοδος. Στο πέμπτο κεφάλαιο αναπτύσσονται τα επιμέρους στοιχεία του υπολογιστικού προγράμματος ATP-EMTP, το οποίο θα αποτελέσει το μέσο εξομοίωσης για την παρούσα εργασία. Αναφέρονται τα σημεία υπεροχής και η καταλληλότητά του για τέτοιου είδους αναλύσεις και παρουσιάζονται τα επιμέρους υποπρογράμματα από τα οποία αποτελείται. Ιδιαίτερη έμφαση δίνεται στο ATPDraw, το οποίο είναι το κύριο όργανο της εξομοίωσης. Στο έκτο κεφάλαιο περιγράφεται αναλυτικά το υβριδικό δίκτυο μεταφοράς υψηλής τάσης που χρησιμοποιείται στην εξομοίωση και αναλύονται τα στοιχεία που το αποτελούν, δηλαδή οι εναέριες γραμμές και τα υπόγεια καλώδια. Επιπλέον, παρουσιάζονται τα αποτελέσματα των εξομοιώσεων και οι γραφικές παραστάσεις των υπερτάσεων στα διάφορα σημεία του κυκλώματος, εξαιτίας κεραυνικών πληγμάτων, των οποίων το εύρος αυξάνει σε κάθε εξομοίωση. Στη συνέχεια ελέγχεται η επικινδυνότητα των υπερτάσεων που εγείρονται για τα διάφορα μεγέθη κεραυνικού ρεύματος και εάν ο εξοπλισμός σε διαφορετικά σημεία του δικτύου αντέχει τις υπερτάσεις αυτές ή καταστρέφεται. Από τα αποτελέσματα προκύπτει ότι επικίνδυνες υπερτάσεις παρατηρούνται σε τμήματα της εναέριας γραμμής μεταφοράς πλησίον του σημείου κεραυνικού πλήγματος. Αντίθετα, το υπόγειο τμήμα του δικτύου αποδεικνύεται πιο ανθεκτικό, καθώς δεν εγείρονται επικίνδυνες υπερτάσεις ακόμα και για πολύ υψηλό κεραυνικό ρεύμα. / The purpose of this diploma thesis is the study of the behavior of overhead transmission lines and underground transmission cables against lightning. In favor of this purpose, a simulation of a hybrid transmission network takes place, which is composed of both overhead lines and underground cables, in order to examine transient overvoltages. These overvoltages are raised due to a lightning that strikes the shield wire of the terminal tower, where the interconnection of overhead line to underground cable takes place. Chapter one presents the basic theory concerning atmospheric discharges. It describes the different types of lightning strikes, their parameters and basic characteristics. Furthermore, it analyzes the consequences of lightning and how to find the frequency that a lightning takes place in an area. At the second chapter there is an introduction in the systems of electric energy and a presentation of the basic characteristics of overhead lines and underground cables. In addition, there is a comparison between those two means of electricity transmission. Chapter three examines the types of errors and the causes of them at the electricity transmission lines. Moreover, it gives the basic parameters of the lightning current waveform. Chapter four analyzes the insulation and protection of both overhead lines and underground cables against lightning. It also examines the mechanisms that raise overvoltages at the transmission lines. Afterwards, there are described two methods on how to define the place of shield wires at a transmission line. Chapter five describes the ATP-EMTP simulation program, which is a specific software to simulate power systems. Its superiority for research like the present one is high lined and special emphasis is given to ATPDraw which is the main tool for the simulation. At chapter six there is a detailed analysis of the hybrid network used in this simulation and of its basic components, which are the overhead lines and the underground cables. Furthermore, there is a presentation of the results of the simulation and the graphs of the overvoltages at different spots of the network, due to lightning strikes. Afterwards, there is an evaluation of the risk of overvoltages that are raised for different lightning current sizes and if the equipment at different spots of the network sustains these overvoltages or it is destroyed. From the results, it is concluded that dangerous overvoltages are raised at sections of the overhead line near the lightning strike. On the contrary, the underground section of the network appears to be more resistant, as there are not raised dangerous overvoltages, even when the lightning current was too high.

The focus of this research is on identification, location, interruption, characterization and overall management of faults in conventional AC distribution systems as well as isolated MVDC power systems. The primary focus in AC distributions systems is on identifying and locating underground cable faults using voltage and current waveforms as the input data. Cable failure process is gradual and is characterized by a series of single-phase sub-cycle incipient faults with high arc voltage. They often go undetected and eventually result in a permanent fault in the same phase. In order to locate such incipient cable faults, a robust yet practical algorithm is developed taking into account the fault arc voltage. The algorithm is implemented in the time-domain and utilizes power quality monitor data to estimate the distance to the fault in terms of the line impedance. It can be applied to locate both sub-cycle as well as permanent faults. The proposed algorithm is evaluated and proved out using field data collected from utility distribution circuits. Furthermore, this algorithm is extended to locate evolving faults on overhead distribution lines. Evolving faults are faults beginning in one phase of a distribution circuit and spreading to another phase after a few cycles. The algorithm is divided into two parts, namely, the single line-to-ground portion of the fault and the line-to-line-to-ground portion of the fault. For the single line-to-ground portion of the fault, the distance to the fault is estimated in terms of the loop or self-reactance between the monitor and the fault. On the other hand, for the line-to-line-to-ground and line-to-line portion of the fault the distance is estimated in terms of the positive-sequence reactance. The secondary focus of fault management in AC distribution systems is on identifying fault cause employing voltage and current waveform data as well as meteorological information. As the first step, unique characteristics of cable faults are examined along with methods to identify such faults with suitable accuracy. These characteristics are also used to distinguish underground cable faults from other overhead distribution line faults. The overhead line faults include tree contact, animal contact and lightning induced faults. Waveform signature analysis, wavelet transforms and arc voltages during the fault event are used for fault cause identification and classification. A statistical based classification methodology to identify fault cause is developed by utilizing promising characteristics. Unlike the AC system infrastructure which is already in place, the DC system considered in this document is that of a notional electric ship. The nature of DC current, with the absence of a current zero as well as the presence of power electronic devices influencing the current behavior, makes interrupting DC fault currents challenging. As a part of this research an innovative DC fault interruption scheme is proposed for rectifier- fed MVDC systems. A fault at the terminals of a phase-controlled rectifier results in a high magnitude current impulse caused by the filter capacitor discharging into the fault resistance. It is proposed to use a series inductor to limit the magnitude of this current impulse. The addition of the inductor results in an underdamped series RLC circuit at the output terminals of the rectifier which causes the fault current to oscillate about zero. Furthermore, it is proposed to utilize a conventional AC circuit breaker to interrupt this fault current by exploiting the zero crossings resulting from the oscillations. Using the proposed scheme for the example case, the peak fault current magnitude as well as the interruption time is significantly reduced. / text

Die Wurzelwasseraufnahme aus dem Boden wird durch die Rhizosphäre beeinflusst. Die Rhizosphäre ist eine dünne Bodenschicht, die sich um Wurzeln herum bildet. Die Rhizosphäre wird durch Mucilage beeinflusst. Mucilage ist ein polymeres Gel, was von Wurzeln abgesondert wird und vor allem die hydraulischen Eigenschaften der Rhizosphäre verändert. Wenn es im Kontakt mit Wasser ist, kann Mucilage große Mengen an Wasser aufnehmen, aber wenn es trocken ist, wird seine Oberfläche hydrophob. Hier konzentrieren wir uns auf den Effekt von Mucilage auf die hydraulischen Eigenschaften des Bodens. Zunächst präsentieren wir experimentelle und numerische Studien, die die hydraulischen Prozesse in der Rhizosphäre nach der Bewässerung von trockenem Boden beschreiben. Bei Mucilagekonzentrationen, die niedriger als ein gewisser Schwellwert waren, konnte Wasser durch die Rhizosphärenschicht fließen, über dieser Konzentration wurde die Schicht wasserundurchlässig während der ersten Minuten bis zu Stunden nach Bewässerung. Wir präsentieren eine analytische Abschätzung der Mucilagekonzentration an der Perkolationsschwelle als Funktion von mittlerer Teilchengröße und Bodenwasserpotential nach Bewässerung. Die Abschätzung wurde an Hand von Experimenten des kapillaren Aufstiegs in Bodensäulen validiert. Wir entwickelten ein effektives Model um zu beschreiben, wir Mucilage die hydraulischen Funktionen des Bodens verändert: (a) Quell- und Trocknungsprozesse von Mucilage resultieren in Nicht-Gleichgewichtsdynamiken zwischen Wassergehalt und Wasserpotential, (b) die Präsenz von Mucilage im Boden reduziert das Wasserpotential bei einem gegebenen Wassergehalt und (c) Mucilage ist viskos und reduziert dadurch die hydraulische Leitfähigkeit des Bodens bei einem gegebenen Wassergehalt. In Experimenten mit Boden-Mucilage-Mischungen testeten wir das Model und wandten es an, um Beobachtungen von früheren Experimenten mit echten Pflanzen zu simulieren, die veränderte hydraulische Dynamiken in der Rhizophäre zeigen. Im Anhang dieser Arbeit sind zwei Studien zur Wärmeausbreitung von Erdkabeln. Hier können hydraulische Dynamiken autreten, die dem radialen Wasserfluss zu einer einzelnen Wurzel ähneln.

<p>This thesis deals with the electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) problems of distributed electrical networks, especially that caused by lightning to electrified railway. Lightning transients were found to damage important devices that control train movements, causing traffic stoppage and delays. This thesis attempts to develop computational models for identification of parameters influencing the coupling phenomena between those devices and lightning. Some supporting experimental investigations are also carried out. This thesis forms the groundwork on the subject of lightning interaction with the electrified railway networks.</p><p>Lightning induces transient overvoltages in railway conductor systems such as tracks, overhead wires, and underground cables, either due to direct lightning strike to the system or due to the coupling of electromagnetic fields from remote strikes. Models based on multiconductor transmission line theory were developed for calculating the induced voltages and currents. A transmission line return stroke model, that can predict the remote electromagnetic fields comparable to experimental observations, is also developed. </p><p>Earlier works on modeling earth return impedances for transient studies in power distribution systems are not readily applicable for railways for lightning transients, in cases of low earth conductivities found in Sweden and for large variation in conductor heights. For the wires above ground, the ground impedance models were modified for wide range of frequencies, soil conductivities and wide spread of conductor heights. Influences of pole insulator flashovers, pole-footing soil ionizations and interconnections between the conductors on the lightning surge propagation are studied. Wave propagation in buried shielded and unshielded cables with ground return is studied. Simplified, valid and computationally efficient ground impedance expressions for buried and on-ground wires are proposed. A model for the coupling phenomena (transfer impedance) through multiple cable shields with multiconductor core is also proposed. Besides, experimental studies on lightning induced transients entering a railway technical house, failure modes of relay and rectifier units used in the train position/signaling applications for lightning transients are performed. A high frequency circuit model for the booster transformer for lightning interaction studies is developed. The simulation models are being converted to user-friendly software for the practicing engineers of the railway industry.</p>

This thesis deals with the electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) problems of distributed electrical networks, especially that caused by lightning to electrified railway. Lightning transients were found to damage important devices that control train movements, causing traffic stoppage and delays. This thesis attempts to develop computational models for identification of parameters influencing the coupling phenomena between those devices and lightning. Some supporting experimental investigations are also carried out. This thesis forms the groundwork on the subject of lightning interaction with the electrified railway networks. Lightning induces transient overvoltages in railway conductor systems such as tracks, overhead wires, and underground cables, either due to direct lightning strike to the system or due to the coupling of electromagnetic fields from remote strikes. Models based on multiconductor transmission line theory were developed for calculating the induced voltages and currents. A transmission line return stroke model, that can predict the remote electromagnetic fields comparable to experimental observations, is also developed. Earlier works on modeling earth return impedances for transient studies in power distribution systems are not readily applicable for railways for lightning transients, in cases of low earth conductivities found in Sweden and for large variation in conductor heights. For the wires above ground, the ground impedance models were modified for wide range of frequencies, soil conductivities and wide spread of conductor heights. Influences of pole insulator flashovers, pole-footing soil ionizations and interconnections between the conductors on the lightning surge propagation are studied. Wave propagation in buried shielded and unshielded cables with ground return is studied. Simplified, valid and computationally efficient ground impedance expressions for buried and on-ground wires are proposed. A model for the coupling phenomena (transfer impedance) through multiple cable shields with multiconductor core is also proposed. Besides, experimental studies on lightning induced transients entering a railway technical house, failure modes of relay and rectifier units used in the train position/signaling applications for lightning transients are performed. A high frequency circuit model for the booster transformer for lightning interaction studies is developed. The simulation models are being converted to user-friendly software for the practicing engineers of the railway industry.

Η διατριβή αποτελεί μία συμβολή στον πειραματικό και υπολογιστικό καθορισμό της έκθεσης ανθρώπων σε ηλεκτρικά και μαγνητικά πεδία στοιχείων συστημάτων ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας (εναέριες γραμμές, καλώδια, μετασχηματιστές, υποσταθμοί). Στις εναέριες γραμμές διπλού κυκλώματος και στα υπόγεια καλώδια υψηλής τάσεως (συγκρότηση των τριφασικών συστημάτων από μονοπολικά καλώδια) καθορίζονται οι διατάξεις των αγωγών των φάσεων, ώστε να επιτυγχάνεται η ελαχιστοποίηση των πεδιακών εντάσεων σε θέσεις προσιτές σε ανθρώπους. Οι δυνατότητες μετρήσεων στο δίκτυο 400kV είναι πολύ περιορισμένες και προφανώς δεν μπορούν να καλύψουν τις ανάγκες εκτεταμένων παραμετρικών διερευνήσεων. Για την πειραματική επιβεβαίωση των αποτελεσμάτων των θεωρητικών διερευνήσεων κατασκευάστηκε στο Εργαστήριο Παραγωγής, Μεταφοράς, Διανομής και Χρησιμοποιήσεως Ηλεκτρικής Ενέργειας του Πανεπιστημίου Πατρών ένα μοντέλο δύο παράλληλα οδευουσών γραμμών 400kV. Στο 1ο κεφάλαιο περιγράφονται οι στόχοι της διατριβής, γίνεται βιβλιογραφική διερεύνηση και δίνονται οι οριακές τιμές της Οδηγίας της Διεθνούς Επιτροπής Προστασίας έναντι Μη Ιονιζουσών Ακτινοβολιών (ΙCNIRP), της σχετικής Σύστασης της Ευρωπαϊκής Ένωσης και της Ελληνικής Νομοθεσίας για την προστασία των ανθρώπων από τα χαμηλόσυχνα ηλεκτρικά και μαγνητικά πεδία. Τα όρια αυτά ανέρχονται σε 5kV/m και 100μΤ για την συνεχή έκθεση του κοινού και σε 10kV/m και 500μΤ για την επαγγελματική απασχόληση. Στο 2ο κεφάλαιο εξετάζονται οι θεωρητικές βάσεις για την ανάπτυξη μοντέλου δύο παράλληλα οδευουσών γραμμών 400kV διπλού κυκλώματος για την μέτρηση του ηλεκτρικού και του μαγνητικού πεδίου και καθορίζονται οι συντελεστές μεταξύ των τιμών των πεδιακών εντάσεων του μοντέλου και των πραγματικών γραμμών. Το μοντέλο παρέχει την δυνατότητα μετρήσεων για διαφορετικές διατάξεις των αγωγών των φάσεων. Ιδιαίτερο ενδιαφέρον παρουσιάζει η συμμετρική διάταξη των αγωγών των φάσεων και η βέλτιστη διάταξη, ώστε να επέρχεται ελαχιστοποίηση της έντασης του ηλεκτρικού πεδίου και της μαγνητικής επαγωγής. Το μοντέλο πρέπει να έχει επαρκές μέγεθος, ώστε, δεδομένων των διαστάσεων των οργάνων μέτρησης της μαγνητικής επαγωγής και της έντασης του ηλεκτρικού πεδίου, τα αποτελέσματα των μετρήσεων να απεικονίζουν με ακρίβεια την κατάσταση στις πραγματικές γραμμές. Για γραμμές 400kV προκύπτει, ως κατάλληλη κλίμακα, η κλίμακα 1:16. Οι διαστάσεις του μοντέλου ανέρχονται σε 12m (μήκος), 3,2m (πλάτος) και 3,6m (ύψος). Το μοντέλο αυτό, με τις πρόσθετες διατάξεις τροφοδοσίας και μετρήσεων, απαρτίζεται από τα ακόλουθα στοιχεία: - Μοντέλο των δύο παράλληλα οδεουσών γραμμών. - Μετασχηματιστές για την τροφοδότηση των γραμμών με την επιθυμητή ένταση (δύο μετασχηματιστές, ένας για κάθε γραμμή διπλού κυκλώματος). - Πηνία για την μείωση των εντάσεων στις επιθυμητές συμμετρικές τιμές (12 πηνία, ένα πηνίο ανά φάση και κύκλωμα γραμμής). - Πίνακας γραμμών με τα απαραίτητα όργανα προστασίας και τη δυνατότητα ζεύξεων ώστε να επιτυγχάνονται οι διαφορετικές διατάξεις των αγωγών των φάσεων (δύο πίνακες, ένας για κάθε γραμμή διπλού κυκλώματος) Καθορίσθηκαν με μετρήσεις ή υπολογισμούς τα ισοδύναμα κυκλώματα των μετασχηματιστών, των γραμμών, των πηνίων και συνδετικών καλωδίων συμπεριλαμβανομένων και των αντιστάσεων διέλευσης. Από το συνιστάμενο ισοδύναμο κύκλωμα προκύπτει η ένταση ανά φάση και κύκλωμα των 208Α, ενώ η αντίστοιχη μετρηθείσα τιμή ανέρχεται σε 184Α (τιμή κατά την θερμική ισορροπία του μοντέλου υπό θερμοκρασία περιβάλλοντος 16οC) Η απόκλιση αυτή οφείλεται κυρίως στην επαγωγική επίδραση των σιδηρών φορέων (εσχαρών) των συνδετικών καλωδίων και των μετασχηματιστών εντάσεως. Στο 3ο κεφάλαιο δίδονται τα αποτελέσματα συστηματικών μετρήσεων και συγκριτικών υπολογισμών της έντασης του ηλεκτρικού πεδίου και της μαγνητικής επαγωγής στο περιβάλλον γραμμών 400kV διπλού κυκλώματος. Οι μετρήσεις έγιναν τόσο στο περιβάλλον πραγματικών γραμμών, όσο και στο περιβάλλον του μοντέλου γραμμών υπό κλίμακα 1:16, το οποίο περιγράφεται στο κεφάλαιο 2. Οι διερευνήσεις έγιναν για την διαπίστωση της βέλτιστης, από πλευράς πεδίων, διάταξης των αγωγών των φάσεων και της επίδρασής της στη μείωση των πεδιακών εντάσεων. Από τις μετρήσεις και τους υπολογισμούς στο περιβάλλον πραγματικών γραμμών και μοντέλου γραμμών προκύπτει η δυνατότητα δραστικής μείωσης των τιμών της έντασης του ηλεκτρικού πεδίου και της μαγνητικής επαγωγής με την εφαρμογή της βέλτιστης διάταξης των αγωγών των φάσεων. Στη συνέχεια υπολογίζονται οι πεδιακές εντάσεις έκθεσης εργαζομένων κατά την πλύση μονωτήρων υπό τάση. Στο 4ο κεφάλαιο εξετάζονται διατάξεις καλωδίων δυο, τριών και περισσοτέρων τριφασικών συστημάτων, τα οποία απαρτίζονται από μονοπολικά καλώδια. Συγκεκριμένα εξετάζονται τυπικές διατάξεις καλωδίων σε επίπεδη διάταξη και διατάξεις καλωδίων εγκατεστημένων σε σήραγγες. Έγιναν παραμετρικές διερευνήσεις ως προς την διάταξη των φάσεων των καλωδίων με σκοπό την μείωση της μαγνητικής επαγωγής στο περιβάλλον των καλωδίων και το καθορισμό των διατάξεων με τις μικρότερες μέγιστες τιμές της μαγνητικής επαγωγής (βέλτιστες διατάξεις). Οι βέλτιστες διατάξεις των φάσεων επαληθεύτηκαν για διάφορα βάθη εγκατάστασης και για διαφορετικές αποστάσεις μεταξύ των μονοπολικών καλωδίων και μεταξύ των τριφασικών συστημάτων. Στις διατάξεις δύο τριφασικών συστημάτων, χωρίς εμπλοκή των φάσεων των δύο συστημάτων, υπάρχουν 36 δυνατές διατάξεις των φάσεων. Οι διατάξεις αυτές ομαδοποιούνται σε ομάδες των 6 διατάξεων οι οποίες δημιουργούν το ίδιο μαγνητικό πεδίο. Έτσι προκύπτουν 6 ανεξάρτητες ομάδες διατάξεων. Αντίστοιχα, σε διατάξεις τριών τριφασικών συστημάτων, υπάρχουν 216 δυνατές διατάξεις των φάσεων από τις οποίες προκύπτουν 36 ανεξάρτητές ομάδες. Για οποιοδήποτε αριθμό n τριφασικών συστημάτων υπάρχουν 6n δυνατές διατάξεις των φάσεων από τις οποίες προκύπτουν 6n-1 ανεξάρτητες ομάδες διατάξεων. Υπάρχει πάντοτε μια ομάδα 6 διατάξεων των φάσεων που προκαλούν τη μέγιστη μείωση (δραστική μείωση) της μαγνητικής επαγωγής στο σημείο της μέγιστης τιμής της (βέλτιστες διατάξεις). Οι βέλτιστες διατάξεις των φάσεων προκαλούν επίσης μεγάλη μείωση τις μαγνητικής επαγωγής σε όλο το περιβάλλον των καλωδίων. Στο 5ο κεφάλαιο παρουσιάζονται τα αποτελέσματα συστηματικών μετρήσεων της μαγνητικής επαγωγής που έγιναν σε εννέα υποσταθμούς 150 kV /20kV υπαιθρίου τύπου του ελληνικού συστήματος. Μετρήσεις έγιναν επίσης στα κέντρα διανομής Αμαρουσίου και Ελευθερίας. Οι μετρήσεις στους υποσταθμούς υπαίθριου τύπου έγιναν: α) Στο άμεσο περιβάλλον του βασικού εξοπλισμού (μετασχηματιστές 150kV/20kV, ζυγοί 150kV, αναχωρήσεις 20kV) και σε πυκνές διαδρομές εντός του υποσταθμού, ώστε να καθοριστεί η χωρική κατανομή της μαγνητικής επαγωγής με τη βοήθεια τρισδιάστατων παραστάσεων. Μπορεί έτσι να εκτιμηθεί η έκθεση του προσωπικού σε μαγνητικά πεδία, β) Σε σημαντικές αποστάσεις από τον βασικό εξοπλισμό και στις περιοχές των γραμμών τροφοδοτήσεως 150kV και των αναχωρήσεων 20kV ώστε να μπορεί να εκτιμηθεί η μαγνητική επαγωγή στα όρια περίφραξης του υποσταθμού (θέσεις προσιτές στο κοινό) και να καθοριστεί συνεπώς η μέγιστη έκθεση του κοινού από πεδία που οφείλονται στον υποσταθμό. Οι μετρήσεις σε κέντρα διανομής έγιναν στην περίμετρο εκτός του κτιρίου (θέσεις προσιτές στο κοινό). Στο 6ο κεφάλαιο παρουσιάζονται τα αποτελέσματα συστηματικών μετρήσεων της μαγνητικής επαγωγής στα Κέντρα Υπερυψηλής Τάσης (ΚΥΤ) υπαιθρίου τύπου Αχαρνών και Κουμουνδούρου και στο Κέντρο Υπερυψηλής Τάσης με μόνωση Αερίου Λαυρίου. Οι μετρήσεις στα Κέντρα Υπερυψηλής Τάσης υπαιθρίου τύπου έγιναν: α) Στο άμεσο περιβάλλον του βασικού εξοπλισμού (αυτόμετασχηματιστές 400kV/150kV, ζυγοί 400kV) και σε πυκνές διαδρομές εντός των ζυγών 400kV, ώστε να καθοριστεί η χωρική κατανομή της μαγνητικής επαγωγής με τη βοήθεια τρισδιάστατων παραστάσεων. Μπορεί έτσι να εκτιμηθεί η έκθεση του προσωπικού σε μαγνητικά πεδία,. β) Στα όρια του ΚΥΤ (θέσεις προσιτές στο κοινό) ώστε να καθοριστεί η μέγιστη έκθεση του κοινού από πεδία που οφείλονται στα ΚΥΤ. Οι μετρήσεις στο Κέντρο Υπερυψηλής Τάσης με μόνωση Αερίου Λαυρίου έγιναν εντός και εκτός της αίθουσας ζυγών 400kV. Στο 7ο κεφάλαιο εξετάζεται η μαγνητική επαγωγή στο περιβάλλον πενήντα εναερίων υποσταθμών διανομής 20kV/0,4kV (Υ/Σ). Από τα αποτελέσματα των μετρήσεων της μαγνητικής επαγωγής προέκυψε ως εύλογος ο διαχωρισμός των εναέριων Υ/Σ σε δύο κατηγορίες: - εναέριοι Υ/Σ τύπου Ε, όπου το κιβώτιο διανομής βρίσκεται σε σημαντικό ύψος από το έδαφος (περί τα 2-3 m). Οι αναχωρήσεις χαμηλής τάσης είναι κυρίως εναέριες. - εναέριοι Υ/Σ τύπου Υ, όπου το κιβώτιο διανομής είναι τοποθετημένο στο έδαφος. Οι αναχωρήσεις χαμηλής τάσης είναι κυρίως υπόγειες. Μετρήθηκε επίσης η μαγνητική επαγωγή στο περιβάλλον εννέα Υ/Σ εγκατεστημένων εντός κτιρίου και τριών Υ/Σ μειωμένων διαστάσεων. Οι μετρήσεις έγιναν σε θέσεις προσιτές στους εργαζομένους (εντός των Υ/Σ) και σε θέσεις προσιτές στο κοινό (εκτός των Υ/Σ). Η ονομαστική ισχύς των υποσταθμών που εξετάσθηκαν κυμαίνεται μεταξύ 250kVA και 1000kVA. Οι μετρήσεις έγιναν σε Υ/Σ αστικών και περιαστικών περιοχών. Από τα κεφάλαια 3 έως 7 προκύπτει ότι οι μέγιστες τιμές της μαγνητικής επαγωγής σε θέσεις προσιτές στο κοινό είναι πολύ μικρότερες από τα επιτρεπόμενα όρια. Κατά την επαγγελματική απασχόληση εμφανίζονται υψηλότερες τιμές, οι οποίες όμως δεν υπερβαίνουν τα όρια έκθεσης των εργαζομένων. / In this thesis constitutes a contribution to the experimental and calculating determination of human exposure to electric and magnetic fields generated by power systems equipments (overhead transmission lines, underground cables, transformers, substations). In double circuit overhead transmission lines and in high voltage underground cables (three-phase systems constituted by single-core cables) the phase configurations are determined in order to achieve the reduction of field intensities in areas accessible to people. The possibilities of measurements in 400kV grid are very restricted and apparently they cannot cover the needs of extensive parametrical investigations. In order to examine experimentally the effect of the theoretical investigations, a model of two parallel running 400kV double circuit lines was constructed at the Power Systems Laboratory of the University of Patras. In chapter 1, the object of this thesis is described and bibliographical research is conducted. The limit values of the guidelines of the International Committee on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP), the Recommendation of the European Union Council and Greek Legislation for the protection of humans from Extremely Low Frequency (ELF) electric and magnetic fields are given. These limits are set to 5kV/m and 100μT for constant public exposure and 10kV/m and 500μT for occupational exposure. In Chapter 2, the theoretical basis for the construction of the model of two parallel running 400kV double circuit lines to measure the electric and magnetic fields is examined. Also, the factors between the values of field intensities of the model and the ones of the actual transmission lines are determined. The model offers the potential of measurement for different arrangements of the phase conductors. What is interesting is the symmetrical arrangement of the phase conductors and the optimum arrangement in order to achieve reduction of the electric field intensity and the magnetic flux density. The model has to be big enough so that the dimensions of the measurement instruments (EMF meters) won’t affect the measurement values. The 1:16 scale occurred to be the appropriate one. The dimensions of the model are 12m (length), 3.2m (width) and 3.6m (height). This model, with its extra power and measurement supplies, is constituted by: - Model of two parallel running 400kV double circuit lines. - Transformers to supply the model with the desirable current (two transformers, one for each double circuit line). - Reactance coils for the reduction of currents to the desirable values (twelve reactance coils, 1 coil per phase and circuit of each line). - Switchboard for lines with the necessary protections and possibility of connection to achieve different phase arrangements (two switchboards, one for each double circuit line). With measurements or calculations the values of equivalent circuit of transformers, lines, reactance coils and connection cables including contact resistance were determined. From the overall equivalent circuit it occurs that the per phase and per circuit current is 208A, but the respective measured value is 184A (value in thermal steady state with environment temperature 16oC). This difference is mostly due to the inductive reactance of the cable trays of connection cable and the current transformers. In chapter 3, the results of systematic measurements and comparative calculations of the intensity of the electric field and the magnetic flux density in the environment of 400kV double circuit line are given. The measurements were conducted both in the vicinity of the real power lines and in the vicinity of the model of power lines in 1:16 scale, which is described in chapter 2. Investigations were conducted to ascertain the optimum phase arrangement as far as fields are concerned, and its effect in the reduction of field intensities. From the measurements and calculations in the vicinity of the real power lines and the model it occurs the drastic reduction of the intensity of electric field and the magnetic flux density by applying the optimum phase conductor arrangement. Following, field intensities of occupational exposure during line insulator washing under voltage are determined. In chapter 4, underground cables’ arrangements of two, three and more three-phase systems are examined, which are constituted by single-core cables. Specifically, typical flat arrangements of cables are examined as well as a typical arrangement of cables installed inside a tunnel. Parametrical investigations are conducted in the phase configurations of the cables in order to reduce the magnetic flux density in the vicinity of the cables and to determine the configurations which produce the minimum maximum values of the magnetic field (optimum configurations). The optimum phase configurations are verified for various installation depths and various distances between the cables and between the three-phase systems. In arrangements of two three-phase systems, without involvement between the two systems, there are 36 possible phase configurations. Those configurations are categorised in groups of 6 configurations which produce the same magnetic field. In this way, 6 independent configuration groups arise. Respectively, in arrangements of three three-phase systems, there are 216 possible phase configurations from which 36 independent groups arise. For any number n of three-phase systems there are 6n possible phase configurations from which 6n-1 independent configuration groups arise. There is always one group of 6 phase configurations (optimum configurations) which cause the greatest reduction (drastic reduction) of the maximum value of the magnetic flux density. The optimum phase configurations also produce great reduction of magnetic flux density in the vicinity of the cables. In chapter 5, the results of systematic measurements of magnetic flux density taken place in nine 150kV outdoor substations of the Greek grid are presented. Measurements also were conducted in 150kV GIS Indoor Substation in Amarousion and Eleftherias. Measurements in outdoor substations were conducted: a) In the direct vicinity of main equipment (150kV/ 20kV transformers, 150kV bus-bars, 20kV overhead lines) and close measurements inside the substation so as to determine in three-dimensional depiction of the magnetic flux density. In this way occupational exposure to magnetic fields can be determined. b) Far away from the main equipment and in the vicinity of 150kV overhead lines and 20kV overhead lines so that the magnetic flux density in the fencing area of the substation (areas accessible to the public) can be evaluated and, consequently, the maximum public exposure to fields owed the substation can be determined. Measurements conducted in 150kV GIS Indoor Substation in the outer perimeter of the building (areas accessible to the public). In chapter 6, results of systematic measurements of magnetic flux density taken place in 400kV outdoor substations in Aharne and Koumoundourou and in 400kV GIS Indoor Substation in Lavrio. Measurements in outdoor substations were conducted: a) In the direct vicinity of main equipment (400kV/ 150kV autotransformers, 400kV bus-bars) and close measurements inside the 400kV bus-bars so as to determine in three-dimensional depiction of the magnetic flux density. In this way occupational exposure to magnetic fields can be determined. b) Measurements conducted in the fencing area of the outdoor substation (areas accessible to the public) can be evaluated and, consequently, the maximum public exposure to fields owed the substation can be determined. Measurements conducted in 400kV GIS Indoor Substation in Lavrio were conducted inside and outside the 400kV bus-bar building. In chapter 7, the magnetic flux density in the vicinity of fifty 20kV /0.4kV outdoor distribution substations is examined. From measurements of the magnetic field, made in the vicinity of outdoor substations, the following segregation of the substation results: - Outdoor substations type O with the fuse-box in the significant height above ground (2-3m). These substations are mainly connected to the overhead grind of 0.4kV. - Outdoor substations type U with the fuse-box on the ground. These substations are mainly connected to the underground grind of 0.4kV. Measurements were conducted in the vicinity of 9 distribution substation 20kV /0.4kV installed inside building, and 3 compact substations. Measurements were conducted in areas accessible to workers (inside the substations) and in areas accessible to the public (outside the substations). The nominal power of the substations lies among 250kVA and 1000kVA. The measurements of the magnetic flux density were conducted in urban and suburban areas. From chapter 3 to 7 it occurs that the maximum values of the magnetic flux density in areas accessible to the public are mach lower than the limit values. In occupational exposure higher values occur, which however do not exceed the limit values.

Society’s dependence on electronic and electrical systems has increased rapidly over the past few decades, and people are relying more and more on these gadgets in their daily life because of the efficiency in operation which these systems can offer. This has revolutionized many areas of electrical and electronics engineering including power sector, telecommunication sector, transportation and many other allied areas. With progress in time, the sophistication in the systems also increased. Also as the systems size reduced from micro level to nano level, the compactness of the systems increased. This paved the way for development in the digital electronics leading to new and efficient IC 0s that came into existence. Power sector also faced a resurge in its technology. Most of the analog meters are now replaced by digital meters. The increased sophistication and compactness in the digital system technology made it susceptible to electromagnetic interference especially from High Power Electromagnetic Sources. Communication, data processing, sensors, and similar electronic devices are vital parts of the modern technological environment. Damage or failures in these devices could lead to technical or financial disasters as well as injuries or the loss of life. Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) can be explained as any malicious generation of electromagnetic energy introducing noise or signals into electric and electronic systems, thus disrupting, confusing or damaging these systems. The disturbance may interrupt, obstruct, or otherwise degrade or limit the effective performance of the circuit. These effects can range from a simple degradation of data to a total loss of data. The source may be any object, artificial or natural, that carries rapidly changing electrical currents, such as an electrical circuit. The sources of electromagnetic interference can be either unintentional or intentional. The sources producing electromagnetic interference can be of different power levels, different frequency of operation and of different field strength. One such classification of these sources are the High Power Electromagnetic Sources (HPEM) High Power Electromagnetic environment refers to sources producing very high peak electromagnetic fields at very high power levels. These power levels coupled with the extremely high magnitude of the fields are sufficient to cause disastrous effects on the electrical and electronic systems. There has been a lot of developments in the field of the source technology of HPEM sources so that they are now one of the strongest sources of electromagnetic interference. High Power Electromagnetic environment refers to the sources producing very high peak electromagnetic fields at very high power levels. These power levels coupled with the extremely high magnitude of the fields are sufficient to cause disastrous effects on the electrical and electronic systems. HPEM environments are categorized based on the source characteristics such as the peak electric field, often called threat level, frequency coverage or bandwidth, average power density and energy content. The sources of electromagnetic interference can be either unintentional or intentional. Some examples of unintentional sources are the increased use of electromagnetic spectrum which generates disturbance to various systems operating in that frequency band, poor design of systems without taking care of other systems present nearby as well as lightning. Intentional sources are High altitude Electromagnetic Pulse (HEMP) or Nuclear Electromagnetic Pulse (NEMP) due to nuclear detonations, Ultra Wide Band (UWB) field from Impulse Radiating Antennas (IRA), Nar-row band fields like those coming from High Power Microwaves (HPM), High Intensity Radio Frequency (HIRF) sources. Of these the lightning is natural and all other sources are man-made. The significant progress in the Intentional High-Power Electromagnetic (HPEM) sources and antenna technologies and the easy access to simple HPEM systems for anyone entail the need to determine the susceptibility of electronic equipment as well as coupling of these fields with systems such as cables (buried as well as aerial), airborne vehicle etc. to these types of threats. Buried cables are widely used in the communication and power sectors due to their efficient functioning in urban cities and towns. These cables are more prone to electromagnetic interferences from HPEM sources. The buried communication cables or even the buried data cables are connected to sensitive equipments and hence even a slight rise in the voltage or the current at the terminals of the equipments can become a serious problem for the smooth operation of the system. In the first part of the thesis the effect of the electromagnetic field due to these sources on the cables laid underground has been studied. The second part of this thesis deals with the study of the interaction of the EM field from the above mentioned HPEM sources with an airborne vehicle. Airborne vehicle and its payload are extremely expensive so that any destruction to these as a result of the voltages and currents induced on the vehicle on account of the incoming HPEM fields can be quite undesirable. The incoming electromagnetic fields will illuminate the vehicle along its axis which results in the induction of currents and voltages. These currents and voltages will get coupled to the internal control circuits that are extremely sensitive. If the induced voltage/ current magnitude happen to be above the damage threshold level of these circuits then it will result in either a malfunction of the circuit or a permanent damage of it, with both of them being detrimental to the success of the mission. This will even result in the abortion of the mission or possible degradation of the vehicle performance. Hence it is worthwhile to see what will be the influence of an incoming HPEM electromagnetic field on the airborne vehicle with and without the presence of an exhaust plume. In this work, the HPEM sources considered are NEMP, IRA and HPM. The electromagnetic fields produced by the EMP can induce large voltage and current transients in electrical and electronic circuits which can lead to a possible malfunction or permanent damage of the systems. The electric field at the earth 0s surface can be modelled as a double exponential pulse as per the IEC standard 61000-2-9. The NEMP field incident on the earth’s surface is considered as that coming from a source at a distance far away from the earth’s surface; hence a plane wave approximation has been used. Impulse radiating antennas are the ones that are used as the major source of ultra wide band radiation. These are highly powerful antennas that use a pulsed power source as the input and this power source is conditioned to get an extremely sharp rise time pulse. These antennas are very high power antennas that are capable of producing a significant electromagnetic field. Impulse radiating antenna is a paraboloidal reflector and hence is an aperture antenna. Initially the radiated field due to this aperture needs to be found out at any observation point from the antenna. In this thesis, the aperture distribution method is used to accurately determine the field due to the aperture. In this method the field reflected from the surface of the reflector is first found on an imaginary plane through the focal point of the reflector that is normal to the axis of the reflector, by using the principles of geometrical optics, which then is extended to the observation point. The IRA considered for the present work is the one of the most powerful IRA as per the published literature available in the open domain. This has an input voltage of 1.025 MV. The far field electric field measured at the boresight (at r =85 m) being equal to 62 kV/m, and the uncorrected pulse rise time (10%-90%) is 180 ps for this IRA. HPM sources are usually electromagnetic radiators having a reflector with a horn antenna kept at their focal point for excitation. HPM sources generally operate in single mode or at tens or hundreds of Hz repetition rates. Many HPM radiators are developed in the world each with their own peculiar geometry and power levels. In the present thesis, a single waveguide (WR-975) fed HPM antenna assembly has been studied. The chosen waveguide has a cut-o_ frequency of 1 GHz and a power level of 10 GW. The wavelength associated with the waveguide is 0.3 m. The field pattern shows a definite peak in its response when the frequency is 1 GHz, the cut-off frequency of the waveguide. The electric field coming out of the HPEM sources travel through the medium that is either air alone or a combination of air and soil respectively depending upon whether the circuit on which the coupling is analysed is an airborne vehicle or an underground cable. The media plays a major role in the coupling, as the field magnitude is influenced by the characteristic properties of the media. As height increases the magnitude of the electric field decreases for all types of sources and also the time before which the field waveform starts is increased. The electric field in the soil is decided by the soil properties such as its conductivity and permittivity. The soil is modelled in frequency domain and the high frequency behaviour of soils is considered with its conductivity and permittivity taken as functions of frequency, as the incident field has high frequency components. A soil medium can be electromagnetically viewed as a four component dielectric mixture consisting of soil particles, air voids, bound water, and free water. When electric field is incident on the soil, it gets polarized. This is as a result of a wide variety of processes, including polarization of electrons in the orbits around atoms, distortion of molecules, reorientation of water molecules, accumulation of charge at interfaces, and electrochemical reactions. Whatever is the HPEM source, an increase in the soil conductivity results in an increased attenuation of the field. Also there is a significant loss of high frequency components in the GHz range in the field due to the selective absorption by the soil. This effect causes the percentage attenuation to be maximum for HPM and minimum for NEMP and IRA lying in between these two extremities. Increase in permittivity of the soil causes attenuation of the electric field for all HPEM sources. This is due to the relaxation mechanisms in the soil due to atomic- or molecular-scale resonances. The coupling of the electromagnetic fields due to HPEM sources is considered in the first phase. Two cables are considered (i) buried shielded and (ii) buried shielded twisted pair cables. The results are arrived at using the Enhanced Transmission Line model. The induced current is more for a shielded cable than a twisted pair cable of the same configuration. The induced current magnitude depends upon the type of the HPEM source, the depth of burial of the cable and the point on the cable where the current/ voltage is computed. Current is maximum at the centre of the cable for a matched termination and the voltage is the minimum at this point. The ratio of the induced current in the inner conductor with respect to the shield current of a shielded cable is the least for an HPM, and maximum for NEMP. This is due to the fact that higher frequencies are absorbed more by the shield of the cable. This affects HPM induced current the maximum and NEMP the least because of the presence of the lower frequency components in NEMP. Induced current in the twisted pair cable depends upon the number of pairs of the cable and the pitching of the cable. The electromagnetic field from the HPEM sources propagates with less attenuation in air due to the lower resistance this medium offers for electromagnetic wave propagation. Hence any system in air, be it electrical or electronic, will be under the strong illumination by these electromagnetic fields. As the second part of this thesis, the influence of the electromagnetic fields from all the three HPEM sources on an airborne vehicle in flight is analysed. For this part of study, the Electromagnetic (EM) fields radiated by all the three sources at different heights from the earth 0s surface have been computed. The coupling study has been done for the case of a vehicle with plume as well as without plume. For the second case, the electromagnetic modelling of the plume has been done taking into consideration its conductivity, which in turn depends on the different ionic species present in the plume. The species of the exhaust plume depends upon the chemical reactions taking place in the combustion chamber of the nozzle of the vehicle. The presence of the alkali metals as impurity in the airborne vehicle propellant will generate considerable ion particles such as Na+, Cl in addition to e- in the plume mixture during combustion which makes the plume electrically conducting. But it does not influence the pressure, temperature and velocity of the plume. After the nozzle throat, the exhaust plume regains the supersonic speed, so the flow of the exhaust plume is assumed as compressible flow in the second region. The electrons have high collision frequency, high number density, high plasma frequency and lower molecular mass and hence the highly mobile electrons dominate the heavy ion particle in the computation of the electrical conductivity of the plume. The plume conductivity decreases marginally from the axis till a distance equal to the nozzle radius but the peak value increases sharply towards the exit plane edge of the nozzle radius. The induced current is computed using Method of Moments. The induced current depends upon the type of interference source, its characteristics, whether the plume is present or not and the type of the plume. The HPM induces maximum current in the vehicle because of the fact that the plume has a tendency to become more conductive at these frequencies. The induced currents due to the EM fields from IRA and NEMP comes after the HPM. The presence of the plume enhances the magnitude of the induced current. If the plume is homogeneous then the current induced in it is more.