Four sections of continuously reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP) were constructed at the University of São Paulo campus in order to introduce this kind of pavement structure to Brazil\'s technical transportation community. Sections were designed as 50 m long concrete slab, short in comparison to traditional CRCP, in order to simulate bus stops and terminals - locations of critical interest for public infrastructure. The thesis presented herein concludes this research project initiated in 2010. As the initial goal of this study was the development of coherent, reliable and intuitive design recommendations for the use of CRCP technology in Brazil, a profound understating of its structural and performance peculiarities was needed. For that, the cracking process of the experimental CRCP sections was recorded over a span of seven years. Due to the sections\' short length and lack of anchorage, the experimental \"short\" CRCP presented a cracking behavior quite different than traditional CRCP. There were much less visible cracks than expected. To address this issue, a novel technology in ultrasonic non-destructive testing of concrete structures was applied. Through ultrasonic signal interpretation it was possible to discover several incipient non-visible cracks within the slabs - many of these became apparent on the slab surface in later crack surveys - and to characterize visible and non-visible cracks regarding crack depth. The updated crack map with non-visible cracks showed similarities with traditional CRCP. Additionally, the ultrasonic data analysis provided important information on thickness variation, reinforcement location and concrete condition that were applied in theoretical simulations (finite element software) of the short CRCP. Simulations were attempted considering different slab geometries, firstly with transverse cracks as joints with high load transfer efficiency (LTE) and secondly with a continuous slab without cracks or joints. The latter simulation was more accurate reaching a shift factor between field and simulated stresses in the order of 0.7 to 1.0. Deflection data and LTE analysis from cracks and panels in between cracks further attested the slab continuous behavior, which contradicts current CRCP design models and performance predictors. Furthermore, critical traffic and environmental loading conditions concerning Brazil\'s climate and bus traffic characteristics were investigated and related using a selected fatigue model resulting in design recommendations in a chart format for the short CRCP aimed at long-term projects for over 20 years of operation. The design chart was successfully applied to investigate three failures presented by the experimental short CRCP due to thickness deficiencies pointed out by the ultrasonic testing. / Quatro seções de pavimento de concreto continuamente armado (PCCA) foram construídas no campus da Universidade de São Paulo, com o objetivo de introduzir esta estrutura, de reconhecido sucesso internacional, à comunidade técnica de engenharia de transportes brasileira. As seções foram projetadas com uma placa de concreto de 50 m de extensão, curta em comparação ao PCCA tradicional, com a finalidade de simular paradas e terminais de ônibus - locais de grande interesse para a infraestrutura pública. A tese aqui apresentada conclui este projeto de pesquisa iniciado em 2010. Como o objetivo inicial deste estudo foi o desenvolvimento de recomendações de projeto coerentes, confiáveis e intuitivas para a utilização do PCCA no Brasil, foi necessário um profundo entendimento de suas peculiaridades estruturais e de desempenho. Para isso, o processo de fissuração das secções experimentais foi acompanhado durante sete anos. Devido à curta extensão e falta de ancoragem das seções, o PCCA \"curto\" apresentou um padrão de fissuração diferente do PCCA tradicional com muito menos fissuras visíveis na superfície do que o esperado. Para abordar esta questão, uma nova tecnologia ultrassônica para ensaios não destrutivos de estruturas de concreto foi aplicada. Pela interpretação do sinal de ultrassom, foi possível descobrir várias fissuras incipientes (não visíveis) dentro das placas - muitas dessas foram observadas na superfície da placa em levantamentos de fissuras posteriores - e caracterizar fissuras visíveis e não-visíveis quanto à profundidade da fissura. O mapa de fissuração atualizado com fissuras não visíveis mostrou semelhanças com PCCA tradicional. Além disso, a análise dos dados de ultrassom forneceu informações importantes sobre a variação da espessura, localização da armadura longitudinal e condição do concreto, que foram aplicados em simulações teóricas (software de elementos finitos) do PCCA curto. Simulações foram propostas considerando diferentes geometrias, primeiramente com fissuras transversais como juntas com alta eficiência de transferência de carga (LTE) e posteriormente com uma placa contínua, sem fissuras ou juntas. Esta última simulação foi mais precisa alcançando um fator de conversão entre tensões de campo e simuladas na ordem de 0,7 a 1,0. Dados de deflexão e análise de LTE em fissuras e placas entre fissuras atestaram novamente o comportamento contínuo das placas, o que vai em contradição com os modelos atuais de dimensionamento e de previsão de desempenho para o PCCA. Ademais, o tráfego crítico e condições de carga ambiental correspondentes ao clima e tráfego de ônibus típicos brasileiros foram investigados e relacionados usando um modelo de fadiga resultando em recomendações de projeto para o PCCA de curta extensão sendo direcionado para projetos de longo prazo para mais de 20 anos de operação. O gráfico de projeto foi aplicado com sucesso para investigar três falhas apresentadas pelo PCCA curto experimental devido a deficiências de espessura apontadas pelo teste ultrassônico.

O pavimento de concreto continuamente armado (PCCA) é caracterizado pela presença de uma alta taxa de armadura longitudinal localizada acima do meio da placa; essa armadura possibilita ao pavimento uma placa de concreto sem juntas. Diferentemente do pavimento de concreto simples, no PCCA não há uma indução da fissuração; as fissuras ocorrem de maneira aleatória, porém são mantidas fortemente apertadas pela armadura longitudinal proporcionando uma estrutura de alta durabilidade exigindo o mínimo de manutenção. Perante tais benefícios, decidiu-se construir quatro seções experimentais deste pavimento no campus da Universidade de São Paulo. A maior diferença entre o PCCA experimental e aqueles encontrados na literatura técnica é a extensão; com o intuito de simular uma parada de ônibus, cada seção possui 50 metros de comprimento, curtas em comparação com os até 400 metros de comprimento encontrados em PCCA tradicionais. Para analisar o comportamento do pavimento foram esquematizados três estudos de desempenho: levantamentos de fissuras; testes de deformação com provas de carga dinâmicas (PCD) com um caminhão carregado; e testes de deflexões com o Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD). A análise da fissuração mostra um comportamento bastante distinto daquele encontrado em PCCA tradicionais; a curta extensão, aliada à falta de ancoragem da placa, resultou em uma fissuração bastante tardia e em um elevado espaçamento entre fissuras. A seção 1, não apresenta, até esta data (dezembro de 2013), nenhuma fissura. A pouca fissuração sugeriu a hipótese de que as fissuras estariam invisíveis a olho nu em função do forte efeito de amarração das barras longitudinais. Entretanto, apesar de tais diferenças, o estudo das tensões através das deformações obtidas pelos strain gauges nas PCD apontam um desempenho estrutural adequado do pavimento; as tensões de tração na flexão resultaram em valores bastante inferiores à resistência do concreto, assegurando a qualidade da placa. Além destas afirmações, as PCD possibilitaram uma série de análises de tensões com configurações de carregamento diferentes. O estudo de deflexões mostrou que nas proximidades da borda longitudinal do pavimento, as deflexões são maiores devido à falta de ancoragem do sistema; no centro as deflexões foram típicas de pavimentos de concreto. A retroanálise das bacias de deflexão resultou em valores de módulo de elasticidade e módulo de reação do subleito baixos próximos à borda, reforçando o impacto da falta de ancoragem. A análise da eficiência de transferência de carga entre fissuras mostrou um desempenho altamente satisfatório de todas as fissuras, inclusive aquelas mais próximas das bordas, o que, novamente, certifica a integridade estrutural da placa. / The continuously reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP) is characterized by the presence of a high longitudinal reinforcement percentage located above the slabs middle; this steel allows a concrete slab without joints. Unlike jointed plain concrete pavements, the CRCP has no cracking induction; the cracks occur randomly, but are held strongly tight by the longitudinal steel, thus, providing a highly durable structure that requires minimal maintenance. Given these benefits, it was decided to build four experimental sections of this pavement on the University of São Paulo\'s campus. The biggest difference between the experimental CRCP and those found in the technical literature is the length; in order to simulate a bus stop, each section is 50 meters long, short compared to traditional PCCA up to 400 meters long. To analyze the behavior of the pavement, three performance studies were carried out: cracks surveys; strain tests with dynamic load tests (DLT) with a loaded truck; and Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) deflection testing. The analysis shows that the cracking pattern is quite distinct from that found in traditional PCCA, the short extension, coupled with the slabs lack of anchorage, resulted in a late cracking development and in large crack spacing. Section 1, has yet to develop any cracks. The low cracking suggested the hypothesis that the cracks were invisible to the naked eye due to the longitudinal bars strong binding effect. However, despite these differences, the stress study through strains obtained by strain gauges in DLT indicate an appropriate structural performance of the pavement, the flexural tensile stresses resulted in values well below the concretes strength, ensuring the slabs quality. Also, the DLT enable a series of stresses analysis with different load configurations. The deflection study showed that in the longitudinal edges vicinity, deflections are higher due to lack of any anchorage system; the center deflections are typical concrete pavement ones. The deflection basins backcalculation resulted in values of elasticity modulus of concrete and modulus of subgrade reaction lower near the edge, reinforcing the impact of the lack of anchorage. The analysis of the load transfer efficiency across cracks showed highly satisfactory performance of all cracks, including those nearest to the edge, which certifies the structural integrity of the slab.

Four sections of continuously reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP) were constructed at the University of São Paulo campus in order to introduce this kind of pavement structure to Brazil\'s technical transportation community. Sections were designed as 50 m long concrete slab, short in comparison to traditional CRCP, in order to simulate bus stops and terminals - locations of critical interest for public infrastructure. The thesis presented herein concludes this research project initiated in 2010. As the initial goal of this study was the development of coherent, reliable and intuitive design recommendations for the use of CRCP technology in Brazil, a profound understating of its structural and performance peculiarities was needed. For that, the cracking process of the experimental CRCP sections was recorded over a span of seven years. Due to the sections\' short length and lack of anchorage, the experimental \"short\" CRCP presented a cracking behavior quite different than traditional CRCP. There were much less visible cracks than expected. To address this issue, a novel technology in ultrasonic non-destructive testing of concrete structures was applied. Through ultrasonic signal interpretation it was possible to discover several incipient non-visible cracks within the slabs - many of these became apparent on the slab surface in later crack surveys - and to characterize visible and non-visible cracks regarding crack depth. The updated crack map with non-visible cracks showed similarities with traditional CRCP. Additionally, the ultrasonic data analysis provided important information on thickness variation, reinforcement location and concrete condition that were applied in theoretical simulations (finite element software) of the short CRCP. Simulations were attempted considering different slab geometries, firstly with transverse cracks as joints with high load transfer efficiency (LTE) and secondly with a continuous slab without cracks or joints. The latter simulation was more accurate reaching a shift factor between field and simulated stresses in the order of 0.7 to 1.0. Deflection data and LTE analysis from cracks and panels in between cracks further attested the slab continuous behavior, which contradicts current CRCP design models and performance predictors. Furthermore, critical traffic and environmental loading conditions concerning Brazil\'s climate and bus traffic characteristics were investigated and related using a selected fatigue model resulting in design recommendations in a chart format for the short CRCP aimed at long-term projects for over 20 years of operation. The design chart was successfully applied to investigate three failures presented by the experimental short CRCP due to thickness deficiencies pointed out by the ultrasonic testing. / Quatro seções de pavimento de concreto continuamente armado (PCCA) foram construídas no campus da Universidade de São Paulo, com o objetivo de introduzir esta estrutura, de reconhecido sucesso internacional, à comunidade técnica de engenharia de transportes brasileira. As seções foram projetadas com uma placa de concreto de 50 m de extensão, curta em comparação ao PCCA tradicional, com a finalidade de simular paradas e terminais de ônibus - locais de grande interesse para a infraestrutura pública. A tese aqui apresentada conclui este projeto de pesquisa iniciado em 2010. Como o objetivo inicial deste estudo foi o desenvolvimento de recomendações de projeto coerentes, confiáveis e intuitivas para a utilização do PCCA no Brasil, foi necessário um profundo entendimento de suas peculiaridades estruturais e de desempenho. Para isso, o processo de fissuração das secções experimentais foi acompanhado durante sete anos. Devido à curta extensão e falta de ancoragem das seções, o PCCA \"curto\" apresentou um padrão de fissuração diferente do PCCA tradicional com muito menos fissuras visíveis na superfície do que o esperado. Para abordar esta questão, uma nova tecnologia ultrassônica para ensaios não destrutivos de estruturas de concreto foi aplicada. Pela interpretação do sinal de ultrassom, foi possível descobrir várias fissuras incipientes (não visíveis) dentro das placas - muitas dessas foram observadas na superfície da placa em levantamentos de fissuras posteriores - e caracterizar fissuras visíveis e não-visíveis quanto à profundidade da fissura. O mapa de fissuração atualizado com fissuras não visíveis mostrou semelhanças com PCCA tradicional. Além disso, a análise dos dados de ultrassom forneceu informações importantes sobre a variação da espessura, localização da armadura longitudinal e condição do concreto, que foram aplicados em simulações teóricas (software de elementos finitos) do PCCA curto. Simulações foram propostas considerando diferentes geometrias, primeiramente com fissuras transversais como juntas com alta eficiência de transferência de carga (LTE) e posteriormente com uma placa contínua, sem fissuras ou juntas. Esta última simulação foi mais precisa alcançando um fator de conversão entre tensões de campo e simuladas na ordem de 0,7 a 1,0. Dados de deflexão e análise de LTE em fissuras e placas entre fissuras atestaram novamente o comportamento contínuo das placas, o que vai em contradição com os modelos atuais de dimensionamento e de previsão de desempenho para o PCCA. Ademais, o tráfego crítico e condições de carga ambiental correspondentes ao clima e tráfego de ônibus típicos brasileiros foram investigados e relacionados usando um modelo de fadiga resultando em recomendações de projeto para o PCCA de curta extensão sendo direcionado para projetos de longo prazo para mais de 20 anos de operação. O gráfico de projeto foi aplicado com sucesso para investigar três falhas apresentadas pelo PCCA curto experimental devido a deficiências de espessura apontadas pelo teste ultrassônico.

O pavimento de concreto continuamente armado (PCCA) é caracterizado pela presença de uma alta taxa de armadura longitudinal localizada acima do meio da placa; essa armadura possibilita ao pavimento uma placa de concreto sem juntas. Diferentemente do pavimento de concreto simples, no PCCA não há uma indução da fissuração; as fissuras ocorrem de maneira aleatória, porém são mantidas fortemente apertadas pela armadura longitudinal proporcionando uma estrutura de alta durabilidade exigindo o mínimo de manutenção. Perante tais benefícios, decidiu-se construir quatro seções experimentais deste pavimento no campus da Universidade de São Paulo. A maior diferença entre o PCCA experimental e aqueles encontrados na literatura técnica é a extensão; com o intuito de simular uma parada de ônibus, cada seção possui 50 metros de comprimento, curtas em comparação com os até 400 metros de comprimento encontrados em PCCA tradicionais. Para analisar o comportamento do pavimento foram esquematizados três estudos de desempenho: levantamentos de fissuras; testes de deformação com provas de carga dinâmicas (PCD) com um caminhão carregado; e testes de deflexões com o Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD). A análise da fissuração mostra um comportamento bastante distinto daquele encontrado em PCCA tradicionais; a curta extensão, aliada à falta de ancoragem da placa, resultou em uma fissuração bastante tardia e em um elevado espaçamento entre fissuras. A seção 1, não apresenta, até esta data (dezembro de 2013), nenhuma fissura. A pouca fissuração sugeriu a hipótese de que as fissuras estariam invisíveis a olho nu em função do forte efeito de amarração das barras longitudinais. Entretanto, apesar de tais diferenças, o estudo das tensões através das deformações obtidas pelos strain gauges nas PCD apontam um desempenho estrutural adequado do pavimento; as tensões de tração na flexão resultaram em valores bastante inferiores à resistência do concreto, assegurando a qualidade da placa. Além destas afirmações, as PCD possibilitaram uma série de análises de tensões com configurações de carregamento diferentes. O estudo de deflexões mostrou que nas proximidades da borda longitudinal do pavimento, as deflexões são maiores devido à falta de ancoragem do sistema; no centro as deflexões foram típicas de pavimentos de concreto. A retroanálise das bacias de deflexão resultou em valores de módulo de elasticidade e módulo de reação do subleito baixos próximos à borda, reforçando o impacto da falta de ancoragem. A análise da eficiência de transferência de carga entre fissuras mostrou um desempenho altamente satisfatório de todas as fissuras, inclusive aquelas mais próximas das bordas, o que, novamente, certifica a integridade estrutural da placa. / The continuously reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP) is characterized by the presence of a high longitudinal reinforcement percentage located above the slabs middle; this steel allows a concrete slab without joints. Unlike jointed plain concrete pavements, the CRCP has no cracking induction; the cracks occur randomly, but are held strongly tight by the longitudinal steel, thus, providing a highly durable structure that requires minimal maintenance. Given these benefits, it was decided to build four experimental sections of this pavement on the University of São Paulo\'s campus. The biggest difference between the experimental CRCP and those found in the technical literature is the length; in order to simulate a bus stop, each section is 50 meters long, short compared to traditional PCCA up to 400 meters long. To analyze the behavior of the pavement, three performance studies were carried out: cracks surveys; strain tests with dynamic load tests (DLT) with a loaded truck; and Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) deflection testing. The analysis shows that the cracking pattern is quite distinct from that found in traditional PCCA, the short extension, coupled with the slabs lack of anchorage, resulted in a late cracking development and in large crack spacing. Section 1, has yet to develop any cracks. The low cracking suggested the hypothesis that the cracks were invisible to the naked eye due to the longitudinal bars strong binding effect. However, despite these differences, the stress study through strains obtained by strain gauges in DLT indicate an appropriate structural performance of the pavement, the flexural tensile stresses resulted in values well below the concretes strength, ensuring the slabs quality. Also, the DLT enable a series of stresses analysis with different load configurations. The deflection study showed that in the longitudinal edges vicinity, deflections are higher due to lack of any anchorage system; the center deflections are typical concrete pavement ones. The deflection basins backcalculation resulted in values of elasticity modulus of concrete and modulus of subgrade reaction lower near the edge, reinforcing the impact of the lack of anchorage. The analysis of the load transfer efficiency across cracks showed highly satisfactory performance of all cracks, including those nearest to the edge, which certifies the structural integrity of the slab.

Increasing productivity, reducing cost, reducing soil damage, reducing the impact of harvesting on standing tree and regeneration are all very important objectives in ground skidding system in the management of the Hyrcanian forest. The research carried out to obtain these objectives included four logging methods, tree length method (TLM), long length method (LLM), short length method (SLM), and wood extraction by mule (mule) in northern Iran. In order to determine the cost per unit, time study techniques were used for each harvesting method, time study data are shifted to logarithmic data based on 10. On the basis of the developed models simulated, 11 skidding turns are simulated and the unit cost are estimated depending on the diameter of the log (DL), skidding distance (SD), and the winching distance (WD) for 11 different cycles with TLM, LLM and SLM. The results showed that on average, the net costs per extraction of one cubic meter of wood were 3.06, 5.69, 6.81 and 34.36 €/m3 in TLM, LLM, SLM and mule. The costs depending on diameter of log (DL), skidding distance (SD) and winching distance (WD) showed that the most economical alternative for Northern Iran is TLM. In the cut-to-length system, the costs of both alternatives LLM, SLM were significantly dependent on DL. , thus the result of this study suggests that as long as the diameter of the felled trees is less than 40 cm, the cut-to-length system is not an economical alternative, whilst the cut-to-length method can be applied for trees with a diameter more than 40 cm. Where diameters are more than 40 cm TLM it is more economical than SLM, however it was not significantly different. Depending on SD in short skidding distance SLM is preferable to LLM but in cases of long skidding distance LLM is more economical than SLM. The winching distance affect was not a factor on cost. To assess the damage on seedlings and standing trees a 100% inventory method was employed in pre-hauling and post-hauling, alongside of skidding trails, winching strips and mule hauling with a 12m width. To chose the best alternative depending on standing damage the Analysis of multiple criterial approval (MA) was applied. The amount of trees damaged by winching operation were 11.89% in TLM, 14.44% in LLM 27.59%, SLM and 0 stem and by skidding operation were 16.73%, 3.13% and 8.78% of total trees in TLM, LLM and SLM. In the winching area about 14%, 20%, 21% and 6 % of the total regeneration was damaged by TLM, LLM, SLM and mule and the skidding operation damaged 7.5% in TLM, 7.4 % LLM and 9.4% in SLM. The friendliest alternative to residual standing was mule but in manual method (where the wood extraction is done by skidder) MA showed that the best alternative depending on residual damage is LLM. To determine the degree of soil compaction a core sampling technique of bulk density was used. Soil samples collected from the horizontal face of a soil pit at 10 cm depth soil core, at 50m intervals on skid trials, in winching strips and control are (no vehicles pass) a soil sample was taken at 10m intervals in the hauling direction of the mule. In order to determine the post-harvesting extent of disturbance on skidding trails by skidding operations, the disturbed widths were measured at 50 m intervals along the skid trails. In the winching area, where the winched logs created a streak of displaced soil, the width of the displaced streak was measured at 5 m interval along the winching strip. In mule hauling operations the width of a streak created by a mule foot track was measured at 10 m intervals. To compare increased average bulk density between alternatives one way The ANOVA, Duncan test and Dunnett t-test with a 95 % confidence level were used. A General linear model was applied to relate the increasing bulk density and the slope gradient. To realize the correlation between the increment of soil bulk density and the slope gradient and the correlation between the soil compaction and soil moisture content (%) The Pearson correlation test was applied. To choose the best alternative (in manual method) a MA test was applied again. The bulk density on the skidding trail increased 51 % for 30 skidding turn, 35 % for 31 skidding turn (one unloaded and one loaded pass) and 46% for 41 skidding turn. Results of ANOVA (p < 0.05) show significant differences of bulk density between alternatives. Duncan test and the Dunnett t-test indicated that the increasing soil bulk density was not significant between control samples and winching strip of TLM and extraction by mule samples. The general linear modeling and Pearson correlation test results indicated that the slope gradient had an insignificant effect on soil compaction, whilst the Pearson test indicates a medium negative correlation between soil compaction and percentage of soil moisture. By ground-based winching operation 0.07%, 0.03%, 0.05% and 0.002% of the total area and by ground based skidding operation 1.21%, 1.67%, 0.81% and 0.00% of total area was disturbed and compacted in TLM, LLM, SLM and mule. The Pearson correlation results show that the width of disturbed area was significantly influenced by the diameter of logs and length of logs (p ˂ 0.05), but there is no significant correlation between soil disturbance width and slope. The results of analysis of MA showed that soil compaction was not related to logging method but sensitivity analysis of MA shows that LLM and TLM are both preferable to SLM.

Increasing productivity, reducing cost, reducing soil damage, reducing the impact of harvesting on standing tree and regeneration are all very important objectives in ground skidding system in the management of the Hyrcanian forest. The research carried out to obtain these objectives included four logging methods, tree length method (TLM), long length method (LLM), short length method (SLM), and wood extraction by mule (mule) in northern Iran. In order to determine the cost per unit, time study techniques were used for each harvesting method, time study data are shifted to logarithmic data based on 10. On the basis of the developed models simulated, 11 skidding turns are simulated and the unit cost are estimated depending on the diameter of the log (DL), skidding distance (SD), and the winching distance (WD) for 11 different cycles with TLM, LLM and SLM. The results showed that on average, the net costs per extraction of one cubic meter of wood were 3.06, 5.69, 6.81 and 34.36 €/m3 in TLM, LLM, SLM and mule. The costs depending on diameter of log (DL), skidding distance (SD) and winching distance (WD) showed that the most economical alternative for Northern Iran is TLM. In the cut-to-length system, the costs of both alternatives LLM, SLM were significantly dependent on DL. , thus the result of this study suggests that as long as the diameter of the felled trees is less than 40 cm, the cut-to-length system is not an economical alternative, whilst the cut-to-length method can be applied for trees with a diameter more than 40 cm. Where diameters are more than 40 cm TLM it is more economical than SLM, however it was not significantly different. Depending on SD in short skidding distance SLM is preferable to LLM but in cases of long skidding distance LLM is more economical than SLM. The winching distance affect was not a factor on cost. To assess the damage on seedlings and standing trees a 100% inventory method was employed in pre-hauling and post-hauling, alongside of skidding trails, winching strips and mule hauling with a 12m width. To chose the best alternative depending on standing damage the Analysis of multiple criterial approval (MA) was applied. The amount of trees damaged by winching operation were 11.89% in TLM, 14.44% in LLM 27.59%, SLM and 0 stem and by skidding operation were 16.73%, 3.13% and 8.78% of total trees in TLM, LLM and SLM. In the winching area about 14%, 20%, 21% and 6 % of the total regeneration was damaged by TLM, LLM, SLM and mule and the skidding operation damaged 7.5% in TLM, 7.4 % LLM and 9.4% in SLM. The friendliest alternative to residual standing was mule but in manual method (where the wood extraction is done by skidder) MA showed that the best alternative depending on residual damage is LLM. To determine the degree of soil compaction a core sampling technique of bulk density was used. Soil samples collected from the horizontal face of a soil pit at 10 cm depth soil core, at 50m intervals on skid trials, in winching strips and control are (no vehicles pass) a soil sample was taken at 10m intervals in the hauling direction of the mule. In order to determine the post-harvesting extent of disturbance on skidding trails by skidding operations, the disturbed widths were measured at 50 m intervals along the skid trails. In the winching area, where the winched logs created a streak of displaced soil, the width of the displaced streak was measured at 5 m interval along the winching strip. In mule hauling operations the width of a streak created by a mule foot track was measured at 10 m intervals. To compare increased average bulk density between alternatives one way The ANOVA, Duncan test and Dunnett t-test with a 95 % confidence level were used. A General linear model was applied to relate the increasing bulk density and the slope gradient. To realize the correlation between the increment of soil bulk density and the slope gradient and the correlation between the soil compaction and soil moisture content (%) The Pearson correlation test was applied. To choose the best alternative (in manual method) a MA test was applied again. The bulk density on the skidding trail increased 51 % for 30 skidding turn, 35 % for 31 skidding turn (one unloaded and one loaded pass) and 46% for 41 skidding turn. Results of ANOVA (p < 0.05) show significant differences of bulk density between alternatives. Duncan test and the Dunnett t-test indicated that the increasing soil bulk density was not significant between control samples and winching strip of TLM and extraction by mule samples. The general linear modeling and Pearson correlation test results indicated that the slope gradient had an insignificant effect on soil compaction, whilst the Pearson test indicates a medium negative correlation between soil compaction and percentage of soil moisture. By ground-based winching operation 0.07%, 0.03%, 0.05% and 0.002% of the total area and by ground based skidding operation 1.21%, 1.67%, 0.81% and 0.00% of total area was disturbed and compacted in TLM, LLM, SLM and mule. The Pearson correlation results show that the width of disturbed area was significantly influenced by the diameter of logs and length of logs (p ˂ 0.05), but there is no significant correlation between soil disturbance width and slope. The results of analysis of MA showed that soil compaction was not related to logging method but sensitivity analysis of MA shows that LLM and TLM are both preferable to SLM.

Thesis is aimed at describing the concepts and basic principles in the economy in gross domestic product. Furthermore it deals with the description of time series, their types, characteristics and the basic classification. A decomposition of time series into thein components is indicated. Another part is a basic description of the most commonly used economic filters - Hodrick-Prescott and Baxter-King. The Christiano-Fitzgerald and frequency-selective filter for short length time series have been practically implemented in MATLAB. The rest of the thesis deals with the application of above mentioned filters to data of Czech Republic, European Union, USA and selected EU countries. Moreover, the correlation between spectral components of the data for selected countries is investigated. KEYWORDS