This thesis studies the Shubnikov-de Haas effect in arsenic.

Nesta tese, apresentamos estudos de magnetotransporte em poços quânticos duplos (DQWs) a campos magnéticos de baixo e sob a aplicação de um campo elétrico externo (potencial de porta). Medidas de magnetorresistência foram realizadas tanto no regime linear quanto no regime não linear. Relatamos a observação de oscilações magnéticas de inter-sub-banda (MIS) pela primeira vez. Estas oscilações MIS já foram estudadas em poços quânticos simples (QWs) com duas sub-bandas ocupadas; um DQW´e o sistema mais apropriado para o estudo das oscilações MIS. As oscilações MIS são atribuídas ao espalhamento inter-sub-banda, e a intensidade delas depende da largura da barreira (relacionada ao gap de energia entre as duas sub-bandas ocupadas, SAS). O estudo das oscilações MIS é uma ferramenta importante para poder acessar ao tempo de vida quântico dos elétrons a temperaturas onde as oscilações Shubnikov-de Haas (SdH) já não são observadas. Em nossas amostras, as oscilações MIS persistem até 25 K. Explicamos estes resultados num modelo teórico considerando um potencial de espalhamento de curto alcance com uma contribuição significativa do tempo de espalhamento elástico dos elétrons e uma contribuição do espalhamento elétron-elétron (e-e) com o aumento da temperatura. A aplicação de um campo elétrico externo (correntes dc) modifica fortemente as oscilações MIS. Descrevemos este efeito não linear causado pelo campo elétrico dc com uma função de distribuição oscilatória. Considerando o aquecimento dos elétrons pelo campo elétrico, é extraído o tempo de espalhamento inelástico. Para correntes dc grandes são encontradas discrepâncias entre o experimento e a teoria. Finalmente, consideramos medidas de magnetotransporte como função de potenciais de porta (porta na superficie) levando ao desbalance do DQW. Encontramos que as contribuições clássica e quântica são necessárias para a descrição teórica da magnetorresistência. Descrevemos as contribuições da magnetorresistência em termos das taxas de espalhamento inter e intra sub-banda utilizando uma função gaussiana como função da correlação do potencial. / In this thesis we present studies of magnetotransport in double quantum wells (DQWs) in low magnetic fields and under application of an external electric field (gate potential). Measurements of magnetoresistance have been carried out in both linear and non-linear regime. We report on the observation of magneto-intersubband (MIS) oscillations for the first time. These MIS oscillations have been studied already in quantum wells (QWs) with two occupied subbands, DQW is the most convenient system for studies of MIS oscillations. They are attributed to intersubband scattering and the strength of MIS oscillations depends on the barrier width (´delta´SAS). Analysis of MIS oscillations is an important tool to access quantum lifetime of electrons at high temperatures where Shubnikov-de Haas (SdH) oscillations are already absent. For our samples, MIS oscillations still exist up to 25 K. We explain these results in a theoretical model considering short-range scattering potential with a significant contribution of el´astic scattering time of electrons and a contribution of electron-electron (e-e) scattering if one increases temperature. Application of an external electric field (here a dc currents) strongly modifies the MIS oscillations. We describe this non-linear effect caused by a dc electric field with nonequilibrium part of the electron distribution function. Including the heating of electrons by the electric field, we are able to extract inelastic scattering time. For a strong dc current, a discrepancy between experiment and theory is found. Finally, we consider gate-dependent (top gate) magnetotransport measurements and drive de DQWs out of balance. We find that both cl´assical and quantum contributions are necessary for theoretical description of the magnetoresistance. We express both contributions in terms of inter and intrasubband scattering rates using a gaussian function as correlation function of the potential.

Neste trabalho, realizamos medidas sistemáticas dos efeitos Hall e Shubnikov-de Haas em função do tempo de iluminação das amostras a fim de investigar as propriedades de transporte elétrico de um gás bidimensional de elétrons (2DEG) confinado num poço-quântico de GaAs/InGaAs próximo a pontos-quânticos de InAs introduzidos na barreira superior do poço-quântico (GaAs). Nós não observamos qualquer degradação expressiva da mobilidade eletrônica devido a inserção deles na heteroestrutura. Contudo, observamos diferentes variações das mobilidades quânticas de amostra para amostra, as quais atribuimos ao acúmulo da tensão mecânica na camada de InAs. O comportamento das mobilidades quânticas e de transporte são discutidas no contexto da modulação local dos perfís das bandas de condução e de valência pela camada de InAs. / In this work, systematic Shubnikov-de Haas and Hall measurements as a function of the sample illumination time were used to investigate the transport properties of a two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) confined in GaAs/InGaAs quantum wells and close to InAs quantum-dots placed in the GaAs top barrier. We did not observe any expressive degradation of the electronic mobility due to the insertion of them in the heterostructure. However, we observed a different change of the quantum mobility of the occupied subbands from sample to sample, which was attributed to the accumulation of mechanical strain in the InAs layer. The behavior of the quantum and transport mobilities are discussed in the context of the local modulation of the band edges by the InAs layer.

The Shubnikov-de Haas effect is an oscillation in the electrical resistivity or conductivity of a metal, semimetal, or semiconductor as a function of changing magnetic field which occurs at low temperatures. The effect is caused by the quantization of the momentum and energy of the charge carriers by the magnetic field. Since the nature of the oscillation depends strongly on the energy band structure of the material in which it is measured, the effect could be quite useful as an investigative tool. Its usefulness has been limited, however, by the uncertainty as to the functional form of the relationship between the measured oscillations and the parameters characterizing the material. One purpose of the present study is to extend the usefulness of the Shubnikov-de Haas effect by experimentally determining the functional form appropriate for a material such as n-type indium antimonide. The second purpose of the study is to determine values for the parameters which characterize the band structure of indium antimonide. The curve fitting procedure is found to be a powerful tool for investigating band structure. All computer programs used in processing the data, fitting the data, and comparing the results with the Kane model are given.

Neste trabalho, realizamos medidas sistemáticas dos efeitos Hall e Shubnikov-de Haas em função do tempo de iluminação das amostras a fim de investigar as propriedades de transporte elétrico de um gás bidimensional de elétrons (2DEG) confinado num poço-quântico de GaAs/InGaAs próximo a pontos-quânticos de InAs introduzidos na barreira superior do poço-quântico (GaAs). Nós não observamos qualquer degradação expressiva da mobilidade eletrônica devido a inserção deles na heteroestrutura. Contudo, observamos diferentes variações das mobilidades quânticas de amostra para amostra, as quais atribuimos ao acúmulo da tensão mecânica na camada de InAs. O comportamento das mobilidades quânticas e de transporte são discutidas no contexto da modulação local dos perfís das bandas de condução e de valência pela camada de InAs. / In this work, systematic Shubnikov-de Haas and Hall measurements as a function of the sample illumination time were used to investigate the transport properties of a two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) confined in GaAs/InGaAs quantum wells and close to InAs quantum-dots placed in the GaAs top barrier. We did not observe any expressive degradation of the electronic mobility due to the insertion of them in the heterostructure. However, we observed a different change of the quantum mobility of the occupied subbands from sample to sample, which was attributed to the accumulation of mechanical strain in the InAs layer. The behavior of the quantum and transport mobilities are discussed in the context of the local modulation of the band edges by the InAs layer.

Nesta tese, apresentamos estudos de magnetotransporte em poços quânticos duplos (DQWs) a campos magnéticos de baixo e sob a aplicação de um campo elétrico externo (potencial de porta). Medidas de magnetorresistência foram realizadas tanto no regime linear quanto no regime não linear. Relatamos a observação de oscilações magnéticas de inter-sub-banda (MIS) pela primeira vez. Estas oscilações MIS já foram estudadas em poços quânticos simples (QWs) com duas sub-bandas ocupadas; um DQW´e o sistema mais apropriado para o estudo das oscilações MIS. As oscilações MIS são atribuídas ao espalhamento inter-sub-banda, e a intensidade delas depende da largura da barreira (relacionada ao gap de energia entre as duas sub-bandas ocupadas, SAS). O estudo das oscilações MIS é uma ferramenta importante para poder acessar ao tempo de vida quântico dos elétrons a temperaturas onde as oscilações Shubnikov-de Haas (SdH) já não são observadas. Em nossas amostras, as oscilações MIS persistem até 25 K. Explicamos estes resultados num modelo teórico considerando um potencial de espalhamento de curto alcance com uma contribuição significativa do tempo de espalhamento elástico dos elétrons e uma contribuição do espalhamento elétron-elétron (e-e) com o aumento da temperatura. A aplicação de um campo elétrico externo (correntes dc) modifica fortemente as oscilações MIS. Descrevemos este efeito não linear causado pelo campo elétrico dc com uma função de distribuição oscilatória. Considerando o aquecimento dos elétrons pelo campo elétrico, é extraído o tempo de espalhamento inelástico. Para correntes dc grandes são encontradas discrepâncias entre o experimento e a teoria. Finalmente, consideramos medidas de magnetotransporte como função de potenciais de porta (porta na superficie) levando ao desbalance do DQW. Encontramos que as contribuições clássica e quântica são necessárias para a descrição teórica da magnetorresistência. Descrevemos as contribuições da magnetorresistência em termos das taxas de espalhamento inter e intra sub-banda utilizando uma função gaussiana como função da correlação do potencial. / In this thesis we present studies of magnetotransport in double quantum wells (DQWs) in low magnetic fields and under application of an external electric field (gate potential). Measurements of magnetoresistance have been carried out in both linear and non-linear regime. We report on the observation of magneto-intersubband (MIS) oscillations for the first time. These MIS oscillations have been studied already in quantum wells (QWs) with two occupied subbands, DQW is the most convenient system for studies of MIS oscillations. They are attributed to intersubband scattering and the strength of MIS oscillations depends on the barrier width (´delta´SAS). Analysis of MIS oscillations is an important tool to access quantum lifetime of electrons at high temperatures where Shubnikov-de Haas (SdH) oscillations are already absent. For our samples, MIS oscillations still exist up to 25 K. We explain these results in a theoretical model considering short-range scattering potential with a significant contribution of el´astic scattering time of electrons and a contribution of electron-electron (e-e) scattering if one increases temperature. Application of an external electric field (here a dc currents) strongly modifies the MIS oscillations. We describe this non-linear effect caused by a dc electric field with nonequilibrium part of the electron distribution function. Including the heating of electrons by the electric field, we are able to extract inelastic scattering time. For a strong dc current, a discrepancy between experiment and theory is found. Finally, we consider gate-dependent (top gate) magnetotransport measurements and drive de DQWs out of balance. We find that both cl´assical and quantum contributions are necessary for theoretical description of the magnetoresistance. We express both contributions in terms of inter and intrasubband scattering rates using a gaussian function as correlation function of the potential.

The problem with which this investigation is concerned is that of demonstrating the applicability of a particular theory and technique to two materials of different band structure, InSb and HgSe, and in doing so, determining the deformation potentials of these materials. The theory used in this investigation predicts an inversion-asymmetry splitting and an anisotropy of the Fermi surface under uniaxial stress. No previous studies have ever verified the existence of an anisotropy of the Fermi surface of semiconductors under stress. In this work evidence will be given which demonstrates this anisotropy. Although the inversion-asymmetry splitting parameter has been determined for some materials, no value has ever been reported for InSb. The methods presented in this paper allow a value of the splitting parameter to be determined for InSb.

The origin of the Shubnikov-de Haas effect, the strain theory developed by Bir and Pikus, and a simple, classical beating-effects model are discussed. The equipment and the experimental techniques used in recording the Shubnikov-de Haas oscillations of n-type indium antimonite are described. The analysis of the experimental data showed that the angular anisotropy of the period of SdH oscillations at zero stress was unmeasurable for low concentration samples as discussed by other workers. Thus the Fermi surfaces of InSb are nearly spherical at low concentration. It was also shown that the Fermi surface of a high concentration sample of InAs is also nearly spherical. The advantages of using the magnetic field modulation and phase sensitive detection techniques in determining the beats are given. The simple, classical beating-effects model is able to explain the experimental beating effect data in InSb. The computer programs used to obtain the theoretical values of the beat nodal position, SdH frequencies, average frequency, the Fermi surface contours, and the energy eigenvalues are given.

The direct current size effect and the radio frequency size effect oscillation in the magnetoconductivity have been explained by a semiclassical theory which is based on the matching of the sample thickness and the classical spiral orbit of the electron about a magnetic field.

Nous présentons dans ce travail la caractérisation, essentiellement en transport, de couches de graphène épitaxiés élaborées par sublimation contrôlée de carbure de silicium (SiC). Des mesures de transport électroniques sont effectuées à basse température (T~1,6 K) et à fort champ magnétique. Dans une première partie, Il est indispensable de se focaliser sur la méthode spécifique (‘graphite cap') utilisée pour la fabrication de tous les échantillons étudiés dans ce travail au CNM, Barcelone. La méthode de ‘graphite cap' permet d'obtenir des couches de graphène en formes de rubans suffisamment isolés entre eux pour la fabrication de dispositifs électroniques. La croissance de graphène donne des résultats très différents suivant les conditions de croissance et les spécificités du substrat de carbure de silicium employé : les échantillons obtenus sur face carbone, et les échantillons sur face silicium.Sur face carbone, deux polytypes de SiC ont été utilisés pour l'élaboration de graphène : (i) sur le polytype ‘6H-SiC (on axis)', des rubans de graphène de l'ordre de 600 µm de longueur et de 6 µm de largeur sont obtenus. La largeur de graphène reste faible car le graphène suit la formation des marches sur le SiC résultant de la reconstruction de la surface pendant la croissance (‘step bunching'). Des monocouches ont été identifiées par spectroscopie Raman. Les résultats de transport sur ces monocouches montrent que la concentration de porteurs, de type trous, varie entre 5x1012cm-2 et 5x1013cm-2. L'effet Hall quantique n'est pas observé à cause du dopage élevé. Mais des oscillations de Shubnikov de Haas ont été bien résolues et étudiées pour extraire leurs phases. La phase des oscillations est égale à zéro, ce qui est une signature de la présence d'une monocouche de graphène.(ii) sur le polytype ‘4H-SiC (8° off axis)', les rubans obtenus sont plus larges et peuvent atteindre une longueur de 600 µm et une largeur de 50 µm. L'utilisation d'un substrat SiC avec une désorientation intentionnelle lors du clivage de la surface initiale permet la coalescence des rubans de graphène. Les résultats de transport sur les monocouches montrent que les porteurs sont toujours de type trous, mais beaucoup moins dopé sur plusieurs monocouches (de l'ordre 8x1011cm-2). L'effet Hall quantique est reporté sur un échantillon dont la mobilité atteint 11 000 cm²/V.s. Une étude à bas champ magnétique est encore réalisée et donnent des informations intéressantes sur l'(anti)localisation faible. Tous les phénomènes quantiques observés sont des signatures sur les propriétés intrinsèques des monocouches de graphène. Pour mieux appréhender le graphène épitaxié, il est important de faire varier la concentration de porteurs. Pour cela, une autre approche est proposée. Nous avons fabriqué une face arrière d'un échantillon semi-isolant par implantation d'ions d'azotes dans le SiC avant la croissance de graphène. Les résultats de transport obtenus sur les monocouches de graphène ont montré l'efficacité de cette grille pour contrôler le type de porteurs. L'effet Hall quantique a été observé pour les deux types de porteurs avec des plateaux de Hall remarquables en largeur (23 T).Sur la face Si, des multicouches de graphène couvrent uniformément toute la surface du substrat. Les multicouches de graphène sont plus épaisses sur les bords de marches que sur les terrasses, identifiées par spectroscopie Raman. Les porteurs sont maintenant de type électrons grâce à la couche de tampon qui existe sur la face Si. Les résultats de transport en champ magnétique et à basse température détectent l'existence d'une anisotropie électrique dues principalement aux marches du substrat SiC. / In this work, we present the characterization, mainly in transport, of epitaxial graphene layers produced by controlled sublimation of silicon carbide substrate (SiC). Electronic transport measurements are performed at low temperature (T ~ 1.6 K) and high magnetic field. In the first part, we explain the specific method ('graphite cap') used for growth of the samples studied in this work at CNM, Barcelona. The method of 'graphite cap' provides graphene ribbons homogeneous and isolated for the fabrication of electronic devices.Graphene on SiC gives very different results depending on the conditions of growth (temperature, pressure…) and the face of SiC substrate used: carbon face (C-face) or silicon face (Si-face).On the carbon face, two SiC polytypes have been used for the graphene growth:(i) On axis 6H-SiC: graphene ribbons are obtained on the whole surface. The length of ribbon approaches 600 µm and the width do not exceed 6 µm. The graphene follows the formation of steps on the SiC resulting from surface reconstruction during growth (‘step bunching'), which affects the graphene width. Monolayers were identified by Raman spectroscopy. For all measured samples, we found that the graphene is p-typed doped with a Hall concentration between 5x1012 and 5x1013cm-2. The quantum Hall effect is not observed because of the high doping level. But the Shubnikov de Haas oscillations (SdH) have been well resolved and studied. The phase of the oscillations is equal to zero, which is a signature from the presence of graphene monolayer.(ii) 8° off axis 4H-SiC: graphene ribbons obtained are larger and can reach a length of 600 µm and a width of 50 µm. The use of a SiC substrate with intentional disorientation upon cleavage of the initial surface allows the coalescence of the graphene ribbons. For all measured devices on this sample, we found that the graphene is p-typed doped (as determined from the sign of the Hall effect) with a Hall concentration between 8x1011 and 1013 cm-2. Mobilities varied between 1000 and 11000 cm²/Vs from device to device at 4K. Magnetoresistance revealed both Shubnikov-de Haas (SdH) oscillations, and interference phenomena (weak localization and antilocalization). For some low doped devices, Quantum Hall effect was observed. All quantum phenomena observed are signatures on the intrinsic properties of graphene monolayers.The main drawback of the epitaxial growth technique is the difficulty to control of the carrier density. Here, we investigate a bottom gate of a graphene device, epitaxially grown on the C-face of SiC substrate. The gate was realized by Nitrogen atoms implantation in the SiC crystal. The transport measurements have shown the effectiveness of the gate to control the type of carriers. The quantum Hall effect was observed for both types of carriers with remarkable Hall plateaus width (23 T).On the silicon face, we discuss results obtained from few layer graphene (FLG) grown epitaxially on the (0001) surface of a 6H-SiC substrate. Carriers are now like electrons through the buffer layer that exists on the Si face. The resulting FLG uniformly covers the substrate on which large step bunched terraces are also visible. The FLG is thicker at the step edges, as evidenced by micro-Raman analysis. Indeed, a noticeable anisotropy of the resistance has been detected by magnetotransport measurements at low temperature and high magnetic field. We will argue that this anisotropy originates from different mobilities, in the terraces and at the step edges.