No description available.

In this paper we perform a statistical analysis of dark counts in superconducting nanowire single photon detectors (SNSPDs) with the end goal of creating a quantum random number generator (QRNG) using these dark counts. We confirm that dark counts are Poissonian for low bias currents and that no afterpulsing is present. However, we also show that an increase in bias current causes the dark counts to violate the independence assumption. For the non-Poissonian dark counts we identify three seemingly similar effects and confirm that: (i) a single event is at times regarded as two by the flat-threshold discriminator in the time-tagging device; (ii) a reflection in the readout circuit incites a second detection event shortly after the arrival of a first one, creating a conditionality between dark counts; (iii) a damped oscillation in the effective bias current immediately after a detection event shows itself in the inter-arrival time probability distribution. Finally, we present and evaluate a method for generating random numbers using the Poissonian dark counts as an entropy source with promising results.

No description available.

Magnesium diboride MgB2 is an interesting material that was discovered to be a superconductor in 2001. It has a remarkably high critical temperature of 39 K which is much greater than was previously thought possible for a phonon-mediated superconductor. MgB2 was also the first material found to exhibit multiple gap superconductivity. It has two energy gaps, the pi gap with a value of 2.3 meV, and the sigma gap with a value of 7.1 meV. Both the high critical temperature and the multiple large energy gaps make MgB2 an attractive candidate for superconducting devices. While the initial discovery of MgB2 was accompanied by much excitement, the enthusiasm has mostly disappeared due to the lack of progress made in implementing MgB2 in practical devices. The aim of this thesis is to attempt to reinvigorate interest in this remarkable material through a study of a variety of practical superconducting devices made with MgB2 thin films grown by hybrid physical-chemical vapor deposition (HPCVD). Two different methods of fabricating MgB2 Josephson junctions are explored. The first is a sandwich type trilayer configuration with a barrier made by magnetron sputtered MgO. Junctions of this sort have been previously studied and implemented in a variety of devices. While they do show some attractive properties, the on-chip spread in critical current due to barrier non-uniformity was too high to be considered a viable option for use in many-junction devices. By developing a fabrication scheme which utilizes electron beam lithography, modest improvements were made in the on-chip parameter spread, and miniaturization of junction size yielded some insight into the non-uniform barriers. The second approach of creating MgB2 Josephson junctions utilized a planar geometry with a normal metal barrier created by irradiating nano-sized strips of the material with a focused helium ion beam. The properties of these junctions are investigated for different irradiation doses. This new technique is capable of producing high quality junctions and furthermore the parameter spread is greatly reduced as compared to the sandwich type junctions. While more research is necessary in order to increase the IcRn products, these junctions show promise for use in many-junction devices such as RSFQ circuits. Prior to this work, the largest substrates that could be coated with HPCVD grown MgB2 were 2" in diameter. A new chamber was designed and constructed which demonstrated the ability to coat substrates as large as 4". This scaled-up system was used to grow MgB2 films on 1 x 10 cm flexible substrates. A method of fabrication was developed which could pattern these 10 cm long samples into ribbon cables consisting of many high frequency transmission lines. This technology can be utilized to increase the cooling efficiency of cryogenic systems used for RSFQ systems which require many connections between low temperature and room temperature electronics. Finally, a method of producing MgB2 films with thicknesses as low as 8 nm was developed. This is achieved by first growing thicker films and using a low angle ion milling step to gradually reduce the film thickness while still maintaining well connected high quality films. A procedure was developed for fabricating meandering nanowires in these films with widths as low as 100 nm for use as superconducting nanowire single photon detectors (SNSPDs). A study of the transport properties of these devices is first presented. Measurements show low values of kinetic inductance which is ideal for high count rates in SNSPDs. The kinetic inductance measurements also yielded the first measurements of the penetration depth of MgB2 films in the ultra-thin regime. Devices made from these ultra-thin films were found to be photon sensitive by measurements made by our collaborators. / Physics

Single-photon emitters (SPEs) are quantum systems that can produce individual photons when excited. These photons can be manipulated in their polarization states to encode quantum bits, which are the quantum-mechanical analogs of classical bits. SPEs are critical to the development of quantum information technology applications, including quantum communication, computing, and sensing. Despite their importance, there are currently no solid-state SPEs that meet the requirements for large-scale applications. Researchers have explored various materials hosts, including quantum dots, carbon nanotubes, and bulk semiconductors, but many challenges remain. For example, producing scalable and integrated SPEs with tunable wavelengths, high clocking rates (brightness), and single-photon purity at room temperature is still an ongoing research goal. In recent years, there has been significant research interest in single-photon emitters (SPEs) in two-dimensional (2D) Van der Waals (VdW) materials. Most research in this area has focused on SPEs in multilayer insulating hexagonal boron nitride (hBN), which can be operated at room temperature, and monolayer tungsten diselenide (WSe2), which is a direct bandgap semiconductor. The SPEs in hBN are derived from defect emission, while those in monolayer WSe2 stem from either defect or strain-bound excitons. Despite this promising research, there are critical challenges that impede the development of these SPEs. For example, hBN is an insulator with a band gap of 6.0 eV, which limits electrical control, and controlling defects is difficult. Additionally, the photo-stability of monolayer WSe2 is vulnerable to environmental fluctuations, such as surface contaminants. Multilayer gallium selenide (GaSe) is another 2D Van der Waals (VdW) SPE host, and the initial experimental observation of GaSe SPEs was reported by Tonndorf. et al. in 2017.2,3 However, GaSe SPEs have received less attention compared to hBN and WSe2 for several reasons. Firstly, early reports2,3 show that GaSe SPEs arising from defects are less brighter than SPEs in WSe24 and hBN.5 Secondly, increasing the laser power for brighter GaSe SPEs would cause the formation of biexcitons, which degrades the single photon purity.2 Since 2017, to the best of our knowledge, there have been no further experimental studies conducted on overcoming those challenges to improve the performances of GaSe SPEs. In this dissertation, I present three research projects focused on addressing the challenges of developing single-photon emitters (SPEs) in multilayer gallium selenide (GaSe). First, I achieved localized bright and stable GaSe SPEs in multilayer GaSe through the manipulation of nanoscale strain. Second, I performed below-diffraction limit hyperspectral imaging of strain-localized GaSe SPEs through cathodoluminescence and demonstrated the wide spectral range tunability, significant enhancement of emission intensities controlled by nanoscale strain, as well as the robust spectral stability of GaSe SPEs. In the last project, I demonstrated a 30%-50% improvement in emission intensities of GaSe, converted non-SPEs to SPEs, and increased operating temperatures from 23 K up to 85K above cryogenic temperature through electrostatic doping. The research works in this dissertation lays a crucial foundation for future fundamental studies and the development of GaSe SPEs and their analogues.

Silicon photon multipliers, or SiPMs, are single photon detectors that have grown increasing interest in the last decade as an alternative to photomultiplier tubes in many field of physics, engineering and medicine. Compared to PMTs, SiPMs are more compact, rugged and operate at much lower bias voltage, in the order of tens of volts. Moreover they are insensitive to magnetic field and can achieve a very high radiopurity SiPM detectors work on the principle of a diode operated above the breakdown voltage, in Geiger mode. In this condition, the electric field in the depletion region is high enough that the electron-hole pairs, generated by a single photon absorption through photoelectric effect, create secondary charges by impact ionization in a potentially diverging avalanche effect that can be exploited to generate a macroscopical current at the output of the diode. Thanks to this effect, the SiPM is capable of counting the number of impinging photons down to single photon level. Noise sources in the SiPM include dark counts and correlated noise. Dark counts are counts happening when an electron-hole pair is generated in the active volume of the device in absence of photon absorptions. These events are caused either by thermal generation, diffusion from the neutral region or by tunnel effect. Correlated noise events, or counts, on the other hand, are generated when a primary firing cell retriggers after a certain time or cause the triggering of another cell. All these noise sources introduce errors in the photon count by adding fake events to the output signal of the detector.Traditional SiPM application is 511 keV gamma-ray detection in PET machines, using scintillator LYSO crystals to convert a single gamma ray into a flash of visible photons. An application based on the same principle was studied in this thesis by coupling FBK RGB-HD SiPMs with CsI:Tl crystals in order to detect lower energy X and gamma-rays. This setup has proven to be effective in the detection of radiation with energy as low as 5.9 keV with a resolution of 38.3%, which is the minimum value of energy resolution measured with SiPMs coupled to scintillator crystals at such low energy. At the same time it was observed that large area detectors provided a dynamic range wide enough to simultaneously detect radiation ranging from 6.4 keV to 122 keV with minimal saturation. In another activity of this thesis it was developed a simulation software that reproduces the behaviour of a SiPM under different light conditions by taking into account the detector efficiency, the dead time and the recharge behaviour of its cells and theoretical modelizations of the noise parameters that affect the measurement. From a given light profile the simulation generates a waveform that reproduces the one measured during the operation of real SiPMs. This waveform was then analysed using FBK software developed for SiPM characterization and the results showed an excellent agreement between the simulated detector and a reference SiPM. This software will become a useful tool for the design of SiPMs for future experiments because it will allow to tune the properties of the detectors to specific applications and it will reduce the need of layout and process split to find the optimal configuration of the detector parameters.Among all FBK technologies, this work was focused on the position-sensitive LG-SiPM. Unlike standard SiPMs, which have a single output, the LG-SiPM employs a more complex structure that splits the current signal into four output channels with ratios depending on the position of the impinging light on its surface. Center of mass calculations are used to reconstruct the position of the firing cell with precision down to some tens of microns while maintaining the fast time response of SiPMs. An application of the LG-SiPM was studied in the framework of the ARIADNE experiment in collaboration with the university of Liverpool. In this work the LG-SiPM was used to detect scintillation light coming from ionization tracks generated by alpha particles inside a CF4 TPC chamber. The ionized electrons where drifted through the action of a high electric field in the TPC towards a THGEM where they created light with timing depending on the distance of each track segment from the scintillator. The LG detector was able to reconstruct the 3D track particle inside the chamber with an error below 8 mm RMS inside the 40 l chamber and, at the same time, to reconstruct the energy released by the particle as function of time and calculate the total energy of the interacting particle and its linear energy transfer. These results open a novel approach for the TPC position reconstruction that combines the low number of readout channels needed for the LG detector to its time-continuous response which allows to reconstruct the tree-dimensional track of a particle inside the chamber.During the experiment it emerged the presence of an artifact that drifted all the reconstructed tracks towards the centre of the detection area, at the end of the signal. This effect was studied by creating a second simulation software that recreates the electrical behaviour of the LG-SiPM equivalent circuit when one or more cells trigger. It was simulated the output of the circuit with different light conditions and different values of the circuit elements and it was observed that the presence of the artifact was related to low intensity currents flowing through the net of the LG-SiPM metal tracks and quenching resistors. Several simulations were run in order to identify the optimal configuration of parameters for the reduction of this unwanted effect and to implement improvements in future LG-SiPM productions.Another application of the LG-SiPM in the field of radiation detection is the position reconstruction of the scintillation light emitted by gamma-rays in a monolithic crystal. Using a thin CsI:Tl crystal and lowering the detector temperature it was possible to distinguish different positions of interaction on the surface of the detector with an error below 1 mm FWHM. This technology can be effective for the creation of monolithic, position sensitive X and gamma-ray detector with good energy resolution for low energy spectroscopy or medical imaging devices.

Optical resonators such as silica micro-spheres and micro-toroids can support whispering gallery modes (WGMs), where light circulates near the resonator surface and is confined by the total internal reflection at the dielectric boundary. Such resonators can exhibit very high quality (Q) factors, since the resonator surface can maintain atomic level smoothness. The combination of high Q factors and small resonator volumes has led to a wide range of applications in sensing, optomechanics, nonlinear optics, and quantum optics. In this dissertation, we introduce a new type of whispering gallery resonators (WGRs) based on micro-droplets in an immiscible liquid-liquid system. Within such an all-liquid platform, it is possible to achieve highly nonlinear coupling between light and liquid that can potentially lead to single-photon level optical nonlinearity. Specifically, we experimentally characterize a droplet (D~500um) of index matching fluid submerged in the water as a high-Q optical resonator, where we use an optical fiber taper to couple light into the droplet through non-contact evanescent coupling. The highest Q-factor observed in the experiment is 2x10^7 which closely matches the upper limit of intrinsic Q-factor set by the material absorption. Given with such a high Q factor, the WGM can exert strong radiation pressure on the droplet interface, push it outward, increase the length of optical path, and produce a red-shift in WGM resonance. Our experimental results have found that the ratio of those resonance shifts and the optical power coupled into the resonator is approximately 60 fm/μW. The result closely matches to our steady-state estimation based on solving the coupled Maxwell-Navier-Stokes equation. To investigate the dynamic interplay of light and liquid, we develop a harmonic oscillator (HO) model to describe the time-domain behaviors of the coupled optofluidic system. We find a good agreement between theoretical predictions and our experimental data. The shift of WGM resonance can potentially be induced by thermal effects. To estimate the magnitude of thermal effects, we also investigate the thermally induced nonlinear behaviors of WGMs in a cylindrical fiber resonator (D~125um), where we change the mechanism of heat dissipation by changing the cladding material (e.g. air and water). For direct temperature measurements, we use a fiber optical resonator with a fiber Bragg grating (FBG) inscribed in the fiber core to observe temperature shifts induced by the high-Q WGMs. Our result shows that the temperature increase in the fiber resonator in the water is 0.13 C, whereas the fiber resonator in air shows ~4.5 C increase in temperature. Our results suggest that the relatively high thermal conductivity of water suppresses thermal nonlinearity by ~50 times, and that the red-shifts of WGMs can largely be attributed to radiation pressure effect. / Ph. D. / Optical resonators are used to confine incoming light and store its energy in a small volume. The quality of such resonators’ optical confinement is represented by quality factor (<i>Q</i>). Among different types of optical resonators, whispering gallery resonator (WGR) is well known for its high-<i>Q</i>, where strong optical confinement is achieved by the total internal reflection at the curved internal surface of spherical / cylindrical dielectric volume. The combination of high <i>Q</i> factors and small resonator volumes has led to a wide range of applications in sensing, optomechanics, nonlinear optics, and quantum optics. In this dissertation, we introduce a new type of WGR based on oil micro-droplet in water. Such an all-liquid platform enables highly nonlinear coupling between optical power and liquid matter that can potentially lead to optical nonlinearity at single-photon energy level. Specifically, we experimentally characterize an oil droplet (<i>D</i> ≈ 500 <i>um</i>) submerged in the water as a high-<i>Q</i> optical resonator, where we use a tapered optical fiber to inject optical power into the droplet. The highest <i>Q</i> of whispering gallery mode (WGM) observed in our experiment is 2×10⁷ and given with the high amplification of optical power in droplet, the WGM can exert strong radiation pressure on the droplet interface, push it outward, increase the length of optical path, and produce a red-shift in WGM resonance. Our experimental results have found that the ratio of those resonance shifts and the optical power coupled into the resonator is approximately 60 fm/<i>μ</i>W. The result closely matches to our steady-state estimation based on solving the coupled Maxwell-Navier-Stokes equation. To investigate the dynamic interplay of light and liquid, we develop a harmonic oscillator (HO) model to describe the time-domain behaviors of the coupled optofluidic system. We find a good agreement between theoretical predictions and our experimental data. The shift of WGM resonance can potentially be induced by thermal effects. To estimate the magnitude of thermal effects, we also investigate the thermally induced nonlinear behaviors of WGMs in a cylindrical fiber resonator (D ≈ 125 <i>um</i>), where we change the mechanism of heat dissipation by changing the media (e.g. air and water) surrounding the resonator. For direct temperature measurements, we use a fiber optical resonator with a temperature sensor equipped inside to observe temperature shifts induced by the high-<i>Q</i> WGMs. Our result shows that the temperature increase in the fiber resonator in the water is 0.13 °C, whereas the fiber resonator in air shows ~4.5 °C increase in temperature. Our results suggest that the relatively high thermal conductivity of water suppresses thermal nonlinearity by ~50 times, and that the red-shifts of WGMs can largely be attributed to radiation pressure effect.

I NTRODUÇÃO: Na cintilografia de perfusão do miocárdio, contrariamente ao desenvolvimento tecnológico ao longo do tempo, manteve-se desde o princípio a mesma forma, por vezes desconfortável ou mesmo inviável, de posicionamento na aquisição das imagens: decúbito dorsal com os braços elevados. OBJETIVOS: O objetivo da pesquisa foi o de avaliar se na aquisição da cintilografia de perfusão do miocárdio o posicionamento com os membros superiores abaixados(T) apresenta os mesmos resultados que os obtidos com os membros superiores elevados(C), tanto em termos de alterações perfusionais como em relação aos parâmetros funcionais. . MÉTODOS: Foram estudados 120 pacientes, 83 (69%) do sexo masculino, com idade 59,4 ± 11,4 anos e peso 72,8 ± 14 kg. Foi realizada primeiramente a aquisição C e na seqüência a aquisição T, utilizando protocolo de um dia de repouso-estresse (dose 370 MBq e 1110 MBq de sestamibi-99mTc), com estresse sincronizado ao eletrocardiograma (gated- SPECT). Três modelos distintos de equipamentos de dois detectores foram utilizados no estudo. Os estudos foram processados usando reconstrução iterativa (OSEM). Na interpretação foi utilizado o modelo de segmentação miocárdica de 17 segmentos, pontuados de 0 a 4 (normal a ausente) segundo o grau de captação. Baseada na análise de um observador dentre um grupo de sete, foi realizada a comparação da totalidade dos segmentos e também segmento a segmento das aquisições C e T nas etapas de estresse e de repouso. Foi comparada também a somatória das pontuações das etapas de estresse(SSS) e repouso(SRS). Os pacientes foram divididos segundo dois critérios: primeiramente, normais (SSS=0) e anormais (SSS>1) e posteriormente, em de baixo risco (SSS3) e de maior risco (SSS>3) A comparação dos parâmetros funcionais de fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo (FEVE), volume diastólico final (VDF), volume sistólico final(VSF), somatória dos escores de motilidade (SMS) e somatória dos escores de espessamento (STS) foi baseada nos valores obtidos de modo automático utilizando o programa computacional Quantitative Gated SPECT. RESULTADOS: No modo C, 23,3% dos pts referiram algum grau de dor no membro superior ou no ombro e no modo T 5 %. Houve diferença significativa (p<0,05) na comparação dos 2040 segmentos miocárdicos entre C e T, ao estresse e ao repouso. Nos 63 pts normais não houve diferença significativa dos escores entre C e T ao estresse e ao repouso. O mesmo foi observado nos 80 pts de baixo risco. Nos 57 pts anormais houve boa correlação entre os valores de SSS (Rho=0,93, p=0,0001) e SRS (Rho=0,93, p=0,0001), mas com valores não equivalentes (p<0,05), sendo a média dos valores de SSS (9,28±8,10) e SRS (7,89±7,34) da aquisição T inferiores à média dos valores de SSS (10,07±7,71) e SRS (8,46±7,35) encontrada na aquisição C. Nos 40 pts de risco, houve boa correlação dos valores de SSS(Rho=0,95, p=0,0001) e SRS(Rho=0,96 p=0,0001), porém a média dos valores de SSS (12,53±7,54) e SRS (10,60±7,08) da aquisição T foi significantemente (p<0,05) inferior à média dos valores de SSS (13,43±6,81) e SRS(11,33±6,97) encontrados na aquisição C. Os parâmetros funcionais apresentaram boa correlação entre C e T, exceto o VDF(p=0,0001). CONCLUSÕES: Os modos C e T apresentam boa correlação dos parâmetros funcionais, exceto o VDF. Embora a aquisição T tenha sido um pouco mais confortável e tenha demonstrado boa correlação nos achados perfusionais, em pts anormais e de maior risco há tendência à subestimação dos defeitos perfusionais. Considerando a importância da medida precisa da intensidade e extensão das alterações perfusionais em termos de avaliação prognostica e decisão terapêutica, a aquisição com membro superior abaixado deve ser evitada. Em situações onde a aquisição com membros superiores abaixados é a única alternativa, os resultados da cintilografia devem ser interpretados com cuidado, especialmente em pacientes anormais e de maior risco, onde as alterações podem estar subestimadas / Contrary to the advances in imaging technology for nuclear cardiology applications, we keep using the same often uncomfortable and sometimes impracticable patient position- supine with arms raised above the head (C). We tested another position modality: supine with arms down at the sides of the trunk (T). The purpose of this study was to verify if the functional and perfusion results of the acquisition T are equivalent to those of the acquisition mode C. We studied 120 patients (pts), 83 (69%) male, aged 59.4±11.4 years and weighting 72.8±14 kg. We performed a one-day protocol (rest gated/stress), using 99mTc-sestamibi (370 MBq and 1110 MBq). In both times (rest and stress), we first performed acquisition in C and in sequence the acquisition in T. The studies were performed in three types of dual detector SPECT systems. T mode was executed successfully in all pts. Images were processed by the iterative reconstruction method (OSEM). Each study was independently interpreted by one nuclear medicine specialist from a group of seven physicians using the 17-segment model. The segments were scored using a 5-point model ranging from 0 (normal uptake) to 4 (uptake absent). The total score of the left ventricle at stress is referred to as the summed stress score (SSS) and at rest as the summed rest score (SRS). The patients were categorized in subgroups by two criteria: normal (SSS=0) or abnormal (SSS1) and low risk (SSS3) or risk (SSS>3). The values of the functional parameters of left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF), end diastolic volume (EDV), end systolic volume (ESV), stress motion score (SMS) and stress thickening score (STS) for both C and T were automatically obtained by the quantitative gated SPECT (QGS) program and results were compared. Shoulder and/or back pain occurred in 23.3% of C patients and in 5% of T patients. There was no agreement between the 2040 segmental scores of both rest and stress in C and T modes (p<0.05). No significant differences between C and T were found for SSS and SRS in the 63 normal individuals nor in the 80 low risk patients. Good correlation between C and T was found for SSS (Rho=0.95, p=0.0001) and SRS (Rho=0.96 p=0.0001) in the 57 abnormal pts, but the mean SSS (9.28±8.10) and SRS (7.89±7.34) values of T were significantly lower (p<0.05) than the mean for SSS (10.07±7,71) and SRS(8.46±7,35) of C mode. Similar patterns were observed in the 40 risk pts; good correlation was found between C and T modes for SSS (Rho=0.95, p=0.0001) and SRS (Rho=0.96 p=0.0001), but the mean SSS (12.53±7.54) and SRS (10.60±7.08) values of T were significantly lower (p<0.05) than SSS (13.43±6.81) and SRS (11.33±6.97) of C mode. Good correlation between C and T was found for all functional parameters, except for EDV (p=0.0001). Although T mode appears to be more comfortable and presented a good correlation between SSS and SRS values, in abnormal and risk pts, the extent and severity of defects can be underestimated. Considering the important therapeutic and prognostic implications of an accurate perfusion measurement, the cardiac SPECT acquisition with the arms in down position should be avoided. When arms-down acquisition is the only alternative, scintigraphy results must be carefully interpreted, especially in abnormal scans whereas the amount of perfusion abnormalities can be underestimated.

La tomographie d'émission par positrons (TEP) se distingue des autres modalités d'imagerie par sa capacité à localiser et quantifier la présence de molécules marquées, appelées radiotraceurs, au sein d'un organisme. Cette capacité à mesurer l'activité biologique des différents tissus d'un sujet apporte des informations uniques et essentielles à l'étude de tumeurs cancéreuses, au fonctionnement du cerveau et de ses maladies neurodégénératives et de la pharmacodynamique de nouveaux médicaments. Depuis les tout débuts de la TEP, les scientifiques rêvent de pouvoir utiliser l'information de temps de vol des photons pour améliorer la qualité de l'image TEP. L'arrivée des photodiodes avalanche monophotoniques (PAMP), rend maintenant ce rêve possible. Ces dispositifs détectent la faible émission de lumière des scintillateurs et présentent une réponse grandement amplifiée avec une faible incertitude temporelle. Mais le potentiel des PAMP n'est pas encore entièrement exploré. Plutôt que de faire la somme des courants d'une matrice de PAMP, il est possible d'utiliser leur nature intrinsèquement binaire afin de réaliser un photodétecteur numérique capable de déterminer avec précision le temps d'arrivée de chaque photon de scintillation. Toutefois, la conception de matrices de PAMP numériques en est encore à ses débuts, et les outils de conception se font rares. Ce projet de doctorat propose un simulateur facilitant la conception de matrices de PAMP, que celles-ci soient analogiques ou numériques. Avec cet outil, l'optimisation d'une matrice de PAMP numérique basée dans une technologie Teledyne DALSA HV CMOS \SI{0,8}{\micro\metre} est proposée. En plus de guider les choix de conception de l'équipe, cette optimisation permet de mieux comprendre quels paramètres influencent les performances du détecteur. De plus, puisque le photodétecteur n'est pas l'unique acteur des performances d'un détecteur TEP, une étude sur l'impact des scintillateurs est aussi présentée. Cette étude vérifie l'amélioration apportée par l'intégration de photons prompts dans des scintillateurs LYSO. Enfin, une approche novatrice pour discriminer l'énergie des évènements TEP basée sur l'information temporelle des photons de scintillation a été développée et vérifiée à l'aide du simulateur. Bien que ce simulateur et les études réalisées dans le cadre de cette thèse soient concentrés sur des détecteurs TEP, l'utilité des PAMP et du simulateur ne se limite pas à cette application. Les matrices de PAMP sont prisées pour le développement de détecteur en physique des particules, physique nucléaire, informatique quantique, LIDAR et bien d'autres. / Abstract : Positron emission tomography (PET) stands out among other imaging modalities by its ability to locate and quantify the presence of marked molecules, called radiotracers, within an organism. The capacity to measure biological activity of various organic tissues provides unique information, essential to the study of cancerous tumors, brain functions and the pharmacodynamics of new medications. Since the very beginings of PET, scientists dreamed of using the photon's time-of-flight information to improve PET images. With the recent progress of Single Photon Avalanche Diodes (SPAD), this dream is now possible. These photodetectors detect the scintillators' low light emission and offers a greatly amplified response with only a small time uncertainty. However the potential of SPAD has not yet been entirely explored. Instead of summing the currents of a SPAD array, it is possible to use their intrinsically binary operation to build a digital photodetector, able to establish with precision the time of arrival of each scintillation photon. With this information, the time-of-flight measurements will be much more precise. Yet the design of digital SPAD arrays is in its infancy and design tools for this purpose are rare. This project proposes a simulator to aid the design of SPAD arrays, both analog and digital. With this tool, we propose an optimised design for a digital SPAD array fabricated in Teledyne Dalsa HV CMOS \SI{0.8}{\micro\metre} technology. In addition to guiding the design choices of our team, this optimisation led to a better understanding which parameters influence the performance of a PET detector. In addition, since the photodetector is not the sole actor in the performance of a PET detector, a study on the effect of scintillators is also presented. This study evaluates the improvement brought by incorporating a prompt photon emission mechanism in LYSO crystals. Finally, we describe a novel approach to energy discrimination based on the timing information of scintillation photons was developped and tested using the simulator. While this simulator and the studies presented in this thesis focus on PET detectors, SPAD are not limited to this sole application. SPAD arrays are promising for a wide variety of fields, including particle physics, high energy physics, quantum computing, LIDAR and many more.

I NTRODUÇÃO: Na cintilografia de perfusão do miocárdio, contrariamente ao desenvolvimento tecnológico ao longo do tempo, manteve-se desde o princípio a mesma forma, por vezes desconfortável ou mesmo inviável, de posicionamento na aquisição das imagens: decúbito dorsal com os braços elevados. OBJETIVOS: O objetivo da pesquisa foi o de avaliar se na aquisição da cintilografia de perfusão do miocárdio o posicionamento com os membros superiores abaixados(T) apresenta os mesmos resultados que os obtidos com os membros superiores elevados(C), tanto em termos de alterações perfusionais como em relação aos parâmetros funcionais. . MÉTODOS: Foram estudados 120 pacientes, 83 (69%) do sexo masculino, com idade 59,4 ± 11,4 anos e peso 72,8 ± 14 kg. Foi realizada primeiramente a aquisição C e na seqüência a aquisição T, utilizando protocolo de um dia de repouso-estresse (dose 370 MBq e 1110 MBq de sestamibi-99mTc), com estresse sincronizado ao eletrocardiograma (gated- SPECT). Três modelos distintos de equipamentos de dois detectores foram utilizados no estudo. Os estudos foram processados usando reconstrução iterativa (OSEM). Na interpretação foi utilizado o modelo de segmentação miocárdica de 17 segmentos, pontuados de 0 a 4 (normal a ausente) segundo o grau de captação. Baseada na análise de um observador dentre um grupo de sete, foi realizada a comparação da totalidade dos segmentos e também segmento a segmento das aquisições C e T nas etapas de estresse e de repouso. Foi comparada também a somatória das pontuações das etapas de estresse(SSS) e repouso(SRS). Os pacientes foram divididos segundo dois critérios: primeiramente, normais (SSS=0) e anormais (SSS>1) e posteriormente, em de baixo risco (SSS3) e de maior risco (SSS>3) A comparação dos parâmetros funcionais de fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo (FEVE), volume diastólico final (VDF), volume sistólico final(VSF), somatória dos escores de motilidade (SMS) e somatória dos escores de espessamento (STS) foi baseada nos valores obtidos de modo automático utilizando o programa computacional Quantitative Gated SPECT. RESULTADOS: No modo C, 23,3% dos pts referiram algum grau de dor no membro superior ou no ombro e no modo T 5 %. Houve diferença significativa (p<0,05) na comparação dos 2040 segmentos miocárdicos entre C e T, ao estresse e ao repouso. Nos 63 pts normais não houve diferença significativa dos escores entre C e T ao estresse e ao repouso. O mesmo foi observado nos 80 pts de baixo risco. Nos 57 pts anormais houve boa correlação entre os valores de SSS (Rho=0,93, p=0,0001) e SRS (Rho=0,93, p=0,0001), mas com valores não equivalentes (p<0,05), sendo a média dos valores de SSS (9,28±8,10) e SRS (7,89±7,34) da aquisição T inferiores à média dos valores de SSS (10,07±7,71) e SRS (8,46±7,35) encontrada na aquisição C. Nos 40 pts de risco, houve boa correlação dos valores de SSS(Rho=0,95, p=0,0001) e SRS(Rho=0,96 p=0,0001), porém a média dos valores de SSS (12,53±7,54) e SRS (10,60±7,08) da aquisição T foi significantemente (p<0,05) inferior à média dos valores de SSS (13,43±6,81) e SRS(11,33±6,97) encontrados na aquisição C. Os parâmetros funcionais apresentaram boa correlação entre C e T, exceto o VDF(p=0,0001). CONCLUSÕES: Os modos C e T apresentam boa correlação dos parâmetros funcionais, exceto o VDF. Embora a aquisição T tenha sido um pouco mais confortável e tenha demonstrado boa correlação nos achados perfusionais, em pts anormais e de maior risco há tendência à subestimação dos defeitos perfusionais. Considerando a importância da medida precisa da intensidade e extensão das alterações perfusionais em termos de avaliação prognostica e decisão terapêutica, a aquisição com membro superior abaixado deve ser evitada. Em situações onde a aquisição com membros superiores abaixados é a única alternativa, os resultados da cintilografia devem ser interpretados com cuidado, especialmente em pacientes anormais e de maior risco, onde as alterações podem estar subestimadas / Contrary to the advances in imaging technology for nuclear cardiology applications, we keep using the same often uncomfortable and sometimes impracticable patient position- supine with arms raised above the head (C). We tested another position modality: supine with arms down at the sides of the trunk (T). The purpose of this study was to verify if the functional and perfusion results of the acquisition T are equivalent to those of the acquisition mode C. We studied 120 patients (pts), 83 (69%) male, aged 59.4±11.4 years and weighting 72.8±14 kg. We performed a one-day protocol (rest gated/stress), using 99mTc-sestamibi (370 MBq and 1110 MBq). In both times (rest and stress), we first performed acquisition in C and in sequence the acquisition in T. The studies were performed in three types of dual detector SPECT systems. T mode was executed successfully in all pts. Images were processed by the iterative reconstruction method (OSEM). Each study was independently interpreted by one nuclear medicine specialist from a group of seven physicians using the 17-segment model. The segments were scored using a 5-point model ranging from 0 (normal uptake) to 4 (uptake absent). The total score of the left ventricle at stress is referred to as the summed stress score (SSS) and at rest as the summed rest score (SRS). The patients were categorized in subgroups by two criteria: normal (SSS=0) or abnormal (SSS1) and low risk (SSS3) or risk (SSS>3). The values of the functional parameters of left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF), end diastolic volume (EDV), end systolic volume (ESV), stress motion score (SMS) and stress thickening score (STS) for both C and T were automatically obtained by the quantitative gated SPECT (QGS) program and results were compared. Shoulder and/or back pain occurred in 23.3% of C patients and in 5% of T patients. There was no agreement between the 2040 segmental scores of both rest and stress in C and T modes (p<0.05). No significant differences between C and T were found for SSS and SRS in the 63 normal individuals nor in the 80 low risk patients. Good correlation between C and T was found for SSS (Rho=0.95, p=0.0001) and SRS (Rho=0.96 p=0.0001) in the 57 abnormal pts, but the mean SSS (9.28±8.10) and SRS (7.89±7.34) values of T were significantly lower (p<0.05) than the mean for SSS (10.07±7,71) and SRS(8.46±7,35) of C mode. Similar patterns were observed in the 40 risk pts; good correlation was found between C and T modes for SSS (Rho=0.95, p=0.0001) and SRS (Rho=0.96 p=0.0001), but the mean SSS (12.53±7.54) and SRS (10.60±7.08) values of T were significantly lower (p<0.05) than SSS (13.43±6.81) and SRS (11.33±6.97) of C mode. Good correlation between C and T was found for all functional parameters, except for EDV (p=0.0001). Although T mode appears to be more comfortable and presented a good correlation between SSS and SRS values, in abnormal and risk pts, the extent and severity of defects can be underestimated. Considering the important therapeutic and prognostic implications of an accurate perfusion measurement, the cardiac SPECT acquisition with the arms in down position should be avoided. When arms-down acquisition is the only alternative, scintigraphy results must be carefully interpreted, especially in abnormal scans whereas the amount of perfusion abnormalities can be underestimated.